This is the report of Inter-Society Color Council Subcommittee on Problem 19 formed in 1953 to study the color technology of white surfaces. Physically, surfaces which appear white reflect strongly and diffusely throughout the visible spectrum. Psychophysically, whites occupy a volume without sharply defined boundaries in the top center of the color solid. Whiteness is the attribute of white surfaces which corresponds to their visual proximity to preferred white. Preferred white varies somewhat with changes of either observer or observing situation. Measurements and intercomparisons of the colors of whites are made to determine adequacies of match to standard and to determine compliance with color specifications. One-number reflectance measurements of whites are widely used as partial determinations of whiteness. There have been a number of investigations to find which formulas yield the most reliable measurements of whiteness from tristimulus values, but the whiteness scales which have resulted from these investigations have not enjoyed widespread commercial use.
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Intercomparison of five slightly different L, a, and b coordinates systems, each based on an approximation to a “uniform color solid.” Illuminant is always CIE Illuminant C.
Equations for color dimensions in terms of CIE X, Y, and Z
Color Difference Meter computes all 3 automatically
See reference 8.
D. B. Judd, Textile Research 9, 253 (1939); D. B. Judd, Am. J. Psychol. 52, 418 (1939).
F. Scofield, “A method for determination of color differences,” Natl. Paint, Varnish Lacquer Assoc., Sci. Sec. Circ. No. 664, Washington, D. C. (1943).
See reference 6.
See reference 7.
R. S. Hunter, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 30, 536 (1940). [See also R. S. Hunter, J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards 25, 581 (1940).]
Table III
Commercial instruments regularly used for color measurements of whites.
Instrument and manufacturer
Geometry
Illuminant color
Remarks
(1)
Spectrophotometers
G. E. Recordinga (General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York)
Near normal diffuse
Any
Plots curves automatically. Tristimulus integrator may be added.
Beckman Model DUb (Beckman Instruments, Fullerton, California)
45° 0°
Any
Wavelength and standard value set before each reading
Reads luminous reflectance and +b (yellowness) automatically
See reference 4.
H. H. Cary and A. O. Beckman, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 31, 682 (1941).
R. S. Hunter, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 30, 536 (1940). See also R. S. Hunter, J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards 25, 581 (1940).
L. G. Glasser and D. J. Troy, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 42, 652 (1952).
See reference 7.
See reference 14.
Effectiveness of fluorescent whiteners (Measure with UV in illuminant)
x
x
See reference 9.
See reference 10.
See reference 11.
See reference 13.
See reference 12.
Tables (3)
Table I
Intercomparison of five slightly different L, a, and b coordinates systems, each based on an approximation to a “uniform color solid.” Illuminant is always CIE Illuminant C.
Equations for color dimensions in terms of CIE X, Y, and Z
Color Difference Meter computes all 3 automatically
See reference 8.
D. B. Judd, Textile Research 9, 253 (1939); D. B. Judd, Am. J. Psychol. 52, 418 (1939).
F. Scofield, “A method for determination of color differences,” Natl. Paint, Varnish Lacquer Assoc., Sci. Sec. Circ. No. 664, Washington, D. C. (1943).
See reference 6.
See reference 7.
R. S. Hunter, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 30, 536 (1940). [See also R. S. Hunter, J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards 25, 581 (1940).]
Table III
Commercial instruments regularly used for color measurements of whites.
Instrument and manufacturer
Geometry
Illuminant color
Remarks
(1)
Spectrophotometers
G. E. Recordinga (General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York)
Near normal diffuse
Any
Plots curves automatically. Tristimulus integrator may be added.
Beckman Model DUb (Beckman Instruments, Fullerton, California)
45° 0°
Any
Wavelength and standard value set before each reading
Reads luminous reflectance and +b (yellowness) automatically
See reference 4.
H. H. Cary and A. O. Beckman, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 31, 682 (1941).
R. S. Hunter, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 30, 536 (1940). See also R. S. Hunter, J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards 25, 581 (1940).
L. G. Glasser and D. J. Troy, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 42, 652 (1952).
See reference 7.
See reference 14.