W. T. Ham, H. A. Mueller, R. C. Williams, and W. J. Geeraets, "Ocular Hazard from Viewing the Sun Unprotected and Through Various Windows and Filters," Appl. Opt. 12, 2122-2129 (1973)
An optical source simulating the sun at the top of the atmosphere has been constructed and used to obtain retinal burn thresholds in the rhesus monkey for image diameters corresponding to that of the solar disk on the human retina. Powers incident on the cornea and retinal irradiances required to produce threshold lesions are given for exposure times ranging from 1 s to 3 min. The ocular hazards associated with viewing the sun through aircraft window systems are assessed in terms of these data. Also, radiation in the near infrared is shown to be less dangerous than visible light in producing thermal injury to the retina.
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Retinal Irradiance (W cm−2) vs Pupillary Diameter (mm)a
Pulpillary diameter (mm)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
Top of atmosphere
Sea level
1.5
6.76
4.51
2.0
12.0
8.01
3.0
27.0
18.0
4.0
48.0
32.0
5.0
75.1
50.0
6.0
108
72.1
7.0
147
98.1
8.0
192
128
Solar constant at zenith, unattenuated by atmosphere taken as 102 mW cm−2 for spectral range 400–1400 nm; 64 mW cm−2 at sea level. Integrated transmittance of human ocular media for same spectral band is 0.735 and 0.781, respectively. Image diameter of sun on human retina taken as 158 μm.
Table II
Comparison of Retinal Burn Thresholds in Man, Monkey, and Rabbita
Area exposed
Species
Paramacula
Fovea
Comments
Man(A.E.G.)
9.0–12.2
13.8
Only temporary afterimage
Man(M.Y.)
9.5–9.9
9.7
Absolute central scotoma
Man(M.V.)
9.7
Foveal detachment
Man(white)
9.3 ± 1.56
18 patients
Man(black)
7.9 ± 1.86
10 patients
Monkey
5.9 ± 1.5
5.7 ± 0.35
22 rhesus monkey eyes
Rabbit
4.1 ± 0.4
100 rabbit eyes
Human volunteers and patients treated for diabetic retinopathy are compared to monkeys and rabbits under identical conditions of exposure, namely, retinal diameter, 1 mm; exposure time, 135 msec; optical source, a filtered Osram lamp (XBO 2500) producing spectrum 400–800 nm. Energy density on retina given in J cm−2.
Table III
Power Entering Eye or Corresponding Retinal Irradiance Required to Produce Threshold Burn Lesion for Various Exposure Timesa
Exposure time (sec)
Power entering eye (mW)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
1
33.2 ± 3.7
131 ± 14.5
10
21.4 ± 2.2
84.1 ± 8.60
30
14.6 ± 3.1
57.4 ± 12.2
60
8.4 ± 1.7
33.0 ± 6.70
180
4.8 ± 0.8
18.9 ± 3.15
Image diameter, 158 μm; spectrum, simulated solar source shown in Fig. 3; integrated transmittance through monkey ocular media, 0.77. Each data point represents the mean and standard deviation for ten threshold determinations in ten monkey eyes.
Table IV
Power at Cornea or Corresponding Retinal Irradiance to Produce Threshold Burn for Exposure Times Ranging from 10 Sec to 180 Seca
Exposure time (sec)
Power entering cornea (mW)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
10
43.3 ± 5.8
156 ± 20.9
30
37.0 ± 7.0
133 ± 25.2
60
32.0 ± 7.7
115 ± 27.8
180
27.0 ± 4.2
97.4 ± 15.1
Image diameter on retina, 158 μm; spectral distribution on retina 700–1200 nm (see Fig. 9); each threshold and standard deviation represents mean for seven monkey eyes; integrated transmittance through monkey ocular media, 0.707.
Tables (4)
Table I
Retinal Irradiance (W cm−2) vs Pupillary Diameter (mm)a
Pulpillary diameter (mm)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
Top of atmosphere
Sea level
1.5
6.76
4.51
2.0
12.0
8.01
3.0
27.0
18.0
4.0
48.0
32.0
5.0
75.1
50.0
6.0
108
72.1
7.0
147
98.1
8.0
192
128
Solar constant at zenith, unattenuated by atmosphere taken as 102 mW cm−2 for spectral range 400–1400 nm; 64 mW cm−2 at sea level. Integrated transmittance of human ocular media for same spectral band is 0.735 and 0.781, respectively. Image diameter of sun on human retina taken as 158 μm.
Table II
Comparison of Retinal Burn Thresholds in Man, Monkey, and Rabbita
Area exposed
Species
Paramacula
Fovea
Comments
Man(A.E.G.)
9.0–12.2
13.8
Only temporary afterimage
Man(M.Y.)
9.5–9.9
9.7
Absolute central scotoma
Man(M.V.)
9.7
Foveal detachment
Man(white)
9.3 ± 1.56
18 patients
Man(black)
7.9 ± 1.86
10 patients
Monkey
5.9 ± 1.5
5.7 ± 0.35
22 rhesus monkey eyes
Rabbit
4.1 ± 0.4
100 rabbit eyes
Human volunteers and patients treated for diabetic retinopathy are compared to monkeys and rabbits under identical conditions of exposure, namely, retinal diameter, 1 mm; exposure time, 135 msec; optical source, a filtered Osram lamp (XBO 2500) producing spectrum 400–800 nm. Energy density on retina given in J cm−2.
Table III
Power Entering Eye or Corresponding Retinal Irradiance Required to Produce Threshold Burn Lesion for Various Exposure Timesa
Exposure time (sec)
Power entering eye (mW)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
1
33.2 ± 3.7
131 ± 14.5
10
21.4 ± 2.2
84.1 ± 8.60
30
14.6 ± 3.1
57.4 ± 12.2
60
8.4 ± 1.7
33.0 ± 6.70
180
4.8 ± 0.8
18.9 ± 3.15
Image diameter, 158 μm; spectrum, simulated solar source shown in Fig. 3; integrated transmittance through monkey ocular media, 0.77. Each data point represents the mean and standard deviation for ten threshold determinations in ten monkey eyes.
Table IV
Power at Cornea or Corresponding Retinal Irradiance to Produce Threshold Burn for Exposure Times Ranging from 10 Sec to 180 Seca
Exposure time (sec)
Power entering cornea (mW)
Retinal irradiance (W cm−2)
10
43.3 ± 5.8
156 ± 20.9
30
37.0 ± 7.0
133 ± 25.2
60
32.0 ± 7.7
115 ± 27.8
180
27.0 ± 4.2
97.4 ± 15.1
Image diameter on retina, 158 μm; spectral distribution on retina 700–1200 nm (see Fig. 9); each threshold and standard deviation represents mean for seven monkey eyes; integrated transmittance through monkey ocular media, 0.707.