In phase-resolved OCT angiography blood flow is detected from phase changes in between A-scans that are obtained from the same location. In ophthalmology, this technique is vulnerable to eye motion. We address this problem by combining inter-B-scan phase-resolved OCT angiography with real-time eye tracking. A tracking scanning laser ophthalmoscope (TSLO) at 840 nm provided eye tracking functionality and was combined with a phase-stabilized optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI) system at 1040 nm. Real-time eye tracking corrected eye drift and prevented discontinuity artifacts from (micro)saccadic eye motion in OCT angiograms. This improved the OCT spot stability on the retina and consequently reduced the phase-noise, thereby enabling the detection of slower blood flows by extending the inter-B-scan time interval. In addition, eye tracking enabled the easy compounding of multiple data sets from the fovea of a healthy volunteer to create high-quality eye motion artifact-free angiograms. High-quality images are presented of two distinct layers of vasculature in the retina and the dense vasculature of the choroid. Additionally we present, for the first time, a phase-resolved OCT angiogram of the mesh-like network of the choriocapillaris containing typical pore openings.

© 2012 OSA

1. L. A. Yannuzzi, K. T. Rohrer, L. J. Tindel, R. S. Sobel, M. A. Costanza, W. Shields, and E. Zang, “Fluorescein angiography complication survey,” Ophthalmology93(5), 611–617 (1986). [PubMed]
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7. S. Yazdanfar, A. M. Rollins, and J. A. Izatt, “Imaging and velocimetry of the human retinal circulation with color Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.25(19), 1448–1450 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. B. White, M. Pierce, N. Nassif, B. Cense, B. Park, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, T. Chen, and J. de Boer, “In vivo dynamic human retinal blood flow imaging using ultra-high-speed spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(25), 3490–3497 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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11. Y. Zhao, Z. Chen, C. Saxer, S. Xiang, J. F. de Boer, and J. S. Nelson, “Phase-resolved optical coherence tomography and optical Doppler tomography for imaging blood flow in human skin with fast scanning speed and high velocity sensitivity,” Opt. Lett.25(2), 114–116 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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20. S. Makita, F. Jaillon, M. Yamanari, M. Miura, and Y. Yasuno, “Comprehensive in vivo micro-vascular imaging of the human eye by dual-beam-scan Doppler optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1271–1283 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. S. Zotter, M. Pircher, T. Torzicky, M. Bonesi, E. Götzinger, R. A. Leitgeb, and C. K. Hitzenberger, “Visualization of microvasculature by dual-beam phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1217–1227 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, K. V. Vienola, and J. F. de Boer, “Angiography of the retina and the choroid with phase-resolved OCT using interval-optimized backstitched B-scans,” Opt. Express20(18), 20516–20534 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. V. X. D. Yang, M. L. Gordon, A. Mok, Y. H. Zhao, Z. P. Chen, R. S. C. Cobbold, B. C. Wilson, and I. A. Vitkin, “Improved phase-resolved optical Doppler tomography using the Kasai velocity estimator and histogram segmentation,” Opt. Commun.208(4–6), 209–214 (2002). [CrossRef]
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29. R. Ferguson, D. Hammer, A. Elsner, R. Webb, S. Burns, and J. Weiter, “Wide-field retinal hemodynamic imaging with the tracking scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” Opt. Express12(21), 5198–5208 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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31. K. V. Vienola, B. Braaf, C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, P. Tiruveedhula, D. W. Arathorn, J. F. de Boer, and A. Roorda, “Real-time eye motion compensation for OCT imaging with tracking SLO,” Biomed. Opt. Express3(11), 2950–2963 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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35. Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, C. R. Vogel, and A. Roorda, “Design of an integrated hardware interface for AOSLO image capture and cone-targeted stimulus delivery,” Opt. Express18(17), 17841–17858 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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43. F. C. Delori, R. H. Webb, and D. H. Sliney, “Maximum permissible exposures for ocular safety (ANSI 2000), with emphasis on ophthalmic devices,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A24(5), 1250–1265 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Acta Anat. (Basel)

• A. W. Fryczkowski and M. D. Sherman, “Scanning electron microscopy of human ocular vascular casts: the submacular choriocapillaris,” Acta Anat. (Basel)132(4), 265–269 (1988). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Arch. Ophthalmol.

• S. Yoneya and M. O. Tso, “Angioarchitecture of the human choroid,” Arch. Ophthalmol.105(5), 681–687 (1987). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Biomed. Opt. Express

• K. V. Vienola, B. Braaf, C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, P. Tiruveedhula, D. W. Arathorn, J. F. de Boer, and A. Roorda, “Real-time eye motion compensation for OCT imaging with tracking SLO,” Biomed. Opt. Express3(11), 2950–2963 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, J. F. de Boer, and A. Roorda, “High-speed, image-based eye tracking with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” Biomed. Opt. Express3(10), 2611–2622 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Eye (Lond.)

• J. M. Olver, “Functional anatomy of the choroidal circulation: methyl methacrylate casting of human choroid,” Eye (Lond.)4(2), 262–272 (1990). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Invest. Ophthalmol.

• M. H. Bernstein and M. J. Hollenberg, “Fine structure of the choriocappillaris and retinal capillaries,” Invest. Ophthalmol.4(6), 1016–1025 (1965). [PubMed]

J. Biomed. Opt.

• D. X. Hammer, R. D. Ferguson, A. H. Patel, V. Vazquez, and D. Husain, “Angiography with a multifunctional line scanning ophthalmoscope,” J. Biomed. Opt.17(2), 026008 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A

• F. C. Delori, R. H. Webb, and D. H. Sliney, “Maximum permissible exposures for ocular safety (ANSI 2000), with emphasis on ophthalmic devices,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A24(5), 1250–1265 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Refract. Surg.

• S. Poonja, S. Patel, L. Henry, and A. Roorda, “Dynamic visual stimulus presentation in an adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” J. Refract. Surg.21(5), S575–S580 (2005). [PubMed]

Med Image Comput Comput Assist Interv

• S. Ricco, M. Chen, H. Ishikawa, G. Wollstein, and J. Schuman, “Correcting motion artifacts in retinal spectral domain optical coherence tomography via image registration,” Med Image Comput Comput Assist Interv12(Pt 1), 100–107 (2009). [PubMed]

Nat. Med.

• B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med.15(10), 1219–1223 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Nat. Rev. Neurosci.

• S. Martinez-Conde, S. L. Macknik, and D. H. Hubel, “The role of fixational eye movements in visual perception,” Nat. Rev. Neurosci.5(3), 229–240 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Ophthalmology

• L. A. Yannuzzi, K. T. Rohrer, L. J. Tindel, R. S. Sobel, M. A. Costanza, W. Shields, and E. Zang, “Fluorescein angiography complication survey,” Ophthalmology93(5), 611–617 (1986). [PubMed]
• M. Hope-Ross, L. A. Yannuzzi, E. S. Gragoudas, D. R. Guyer, J. S. Slakter, J. A. Sorenson, S. Krupsky, D. A. Orlock, and C. A. Puliafito, “Adverse reactions due to indocyanine green,” Ophthalmology101(3), 529–533 (1994). [PubMed]

Opt. Commun.

• V. X. D. Yang, M. L. Gordon, A. Mok, Y. H. Zhao, Z. P. Chen, R. S. C. Cobbold, B. C. Wilson, and I. A. Vitkin, “Improved phase-resolved optical Doppler tomography using the Kasai velocity estimator and histogram segmentation,” Opt. Commun.208(4–6), 209–214 (2002). [CrossRef]

Opt. Express

• B. Park, M. C. Pierce, B. Cense, S. H. Yun, M. Mujat, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, and J. de Boer, “Real-time fiber-based multi-functional spectral-domain optical coherence tomography at 1.3 microm,” Opt. Express13(11), 3931–3944 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. Barton and S. Stromski, “Flow measurement without phase information in optical coherence tomography images,” Opt. Express13(14), 5234–5239 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, V. A. Sicam, E. van Zeeburg, J. C. van Meurs, and J. F. de Boer, “Phase-stabilized optical frequency domain imaging at 1-µm for the measurement of blood flow in the human choroid,” Opt. Express19(21), 20886–20903 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, C. R. Vogel, and A. Roorda, “Design of an integrated hardware interface for AOSLO image capture and cone-targeted stimulus delivery,” Opt. Express18(17), 17841–17858 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Makita, Y. Hong, M. Yamanari, T. Yatagai, and Y. Yasuno, “Optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express14(17), 7821–7840 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. Ferguson, D. Hammer, A. Elsner, R. Webb, S. Burns, and J. Weiter, “Wide-field retinal hemodynamic imaging with the tracking scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” Opt. Express12(21), 5198–5208 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• F. Jaillon, S. Makita, and Y. Yasuno, “Variable velocity range imaging of the choroid with dual-beam optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express20(1), 385–396 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. Leitgeb, C. Hitzenberger, and A. Fercher, “Performance of fourier domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(8), 889–894 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• M. Choma, M. Sarunic, C. Yang, and J. Izatt, “Sensitivity advantage of swept source and Fourier domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(18), 2183–2189 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. White, M. Pierce, N. Nassif, B. Cense, B. Park, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, T. Chen, and J. de Boer, “In vivo dynamic human retinal blood flow imaging using ultra-high-speed spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(25), 3490–3497 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. Leitgeb, L. Schmetterer, W. Drexler, A. Fercher, R. Zawadzki, and T. Bajraszewski, “Real-time assessment of retinal blood flow with ultrafast acquisition by color Doppler Fourier domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(23), 3116–3121 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. K. Wang, S. L. Jacques, Z. Ma, S. Hurst, S. R. Hanson, and A. Gruber, “Three dimensional optical angiography,” Opt. Express15(7), 4083–4097 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. Fingler, D. Schwartz, C. Yang, and S. E. Fraser, “Mobility and transverse flow visualization using phase variance contrast with spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express15(20), 12636–12653 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• I. Grulkowski, I. Gorczynska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Szkulmowska, R. A. Leitgeb, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT,” Opt. Express17(26), 23736–23754 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Makita, F. Jaillon, M. Yamanari, M. Miura, and Y. Yasuno, “Comprehensive in vivo micro-vascular imaging of the human eye by dual-beam-scan Doppler optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1271–1283 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Zotter, M. Pircher, T. Torzicky, M. Bonesi, E. Götzinger, R. A. Leitgeb, and C. K. Hitzenberger, “Visualization of microvasculature by dual-beam phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1217–1227 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, K. V. Vienola, and J. F. de Boer, “Angiography of the retina and the choroid with phase-resolved OCT using interval-optimized backstitched B-scans,” Opt. Express20(18), 20516–20534 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Lett.

• J. F. de Boer, B. Cense, B. H. Park, M. C. Pierce, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Improved signal-to-noise ratio in spectral-domain compared with time-domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.28(21), 2067–2069 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• X. J. Wang, T. E. Milner, and J. S. Nelson, “Characterization of fluid flow velocity by optical Doppler tomography,” Opt. Lett.20(11), 1337–1339 (1995). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Z. Chen, T. E. Milner, D. Dave, and J. S. Nelson, “Optical Doppler tomographic imaging of fluid flow velocity in highly scattering media,” Opt. Lett.22(1), 64–66 (1997). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. A. Izatt, M. D. Kulkarni, S. Yazdanfar, J. K. Barton, and A. J. Welch, “In vivo bidirectional color Doppler flow imaging of picoliter blood volumes using optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.22(18), 1439–1441 (1997). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Y. Zhao, Z. Chen, C. Saxer, S. Xiang, J. F. de Boer, and J. S. Nelson, “Phase-resolved optical coherence tomography and optical Doppler tomography for imaging blood flow in human skin with fast scanning speed and high velocity sensitivity,” Opt. Lett.25(2), 114–116 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Yazdanfar, A. M. Rollins, and J. A. Izatt, “Imaging and velocimetry of the human retinal circulation with color Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.25(19), 1448–1450 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. Mariampillai, B. A. Standish, E. H. Moriyama, M. Khurana, N. R. Munce, M. K. Leung, J. Jiang, A. Cable, B. C. Wilson, I. A. Vitkin, and V. X. Yang, “Speckle variance detection of microvasculature using swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.33(13), 1530–1532 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. D. Ferguson, D. X. Hammer, L. A. Paunescu, S. Beaton, and J. S. Schuman, “Tracking optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.29(18), 2139–2141 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Proc. SPIE

• T. Klein, W. Wieser, R. André, T. Pfeiffer, C. M. Eigenwillig, and R. Huber, “Multi-MHz FDML OCT: snapshot retinal imaging at 6.7 million axial-scans per second,” Proc. SPIE8213, 82131E, 82131E-6 (2012). [CrossRef]

Science

• D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Other

• ANSI, “American National Standard for the Safe use of Lasers,” ANSI Z136.1 (Laser Institute of America, Orlando, FL, 2007).

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