In conventional phase-resolved OCT blood flow is detected from phase changes between successive A-scans. Especially in high-speed OCT systems this results in a short evaluation time interval. This method is therefore often unable to visualize complete vascular networks since low flow velocities cause insufficient phase changes. This problem was solved by comparing B-scans instead of successive A-scans to enlarge the time interval. In this paper a detailed phase-noise analysis of our OCT system is presented in order to calculate the optimal time intervals for visualization of the vasculature of the human retina and choroid. High-resolution images of the vasculature of a healthy volunteer taken with various time intervals are presented to confirm this analysis. The imaging was performed with a backstitched B-scan in which pairs of small repeated B-scans are stitched together to independently control the time interval and the imaged lateral field size. A time interval of ≥2.5 ms was found effective to image the retinal vasculature down to the capillary level. The higher flow velocities of the choroid allowed a time interval of 0.64 ms to reveal its dense vasculature. Finally we analyzed depth-resolved histograms of volumetric phase-difference data to assess changes in amount of blood flow with depth. This analysis indicated different flow regimes in the retina and the choroid.

© 2012 OSA

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5. S. Makita, Y. Hong, M. Yamanari, T. Yatagai, and Y. Yasuno, “Optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express14(17), 7821–7840 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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39. L. Zhu, Y. Zheng, C. H. von Kerczek, L. D. Topoleski, and R. W. Flower, “Feasibility of extracting velocity distribution in choriocapillaris in human eyes from ICG dye angiograms,” J. Biomech. Eng.128(2), 203–209 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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42. V. F. Duma, K. S. Lee, P. Meemon, and J. P. Rolland, “Experimental investigations of the scanning functions of galvanometer-based scanners with applications in OCT,” Appl. Opt.50(29), 5735–5749 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. S. Jiao, R. Knighton, X. Huang, G. Gregori, and C. Puliafito, “Simultaneous acquisition of sectional and fundus ophthalmic images with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express13(2), 444–452 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, C. R. Vogel, and A. Roorda, “Design of an integrated hardware interface for AOSLO image capture and cone-targeted stimulus delivery,” Opt. Express18(17), 17841–17858 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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48. M. K. Leung, A. Mariampillai, B. A. Standish, K. K. Lee, N. R. Munce, I. A. Vitkin, and V. X. Yang, “High-power wavelength-swept laser in Littman telescope-less polygon filter and dual-amplifier configuration for multichannel optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.34(18), 2814–2816 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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Acta Anat. (Basel)

• A. W. Fryczkowski and M. D. Sherman, “Scanning electron microscopy of human ocular vascular casts: the submacular choriocapillaris,” Acta Anat. (Basel)132(4), 265–269 (1988). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Appl. Opt.

• V. F. Duma, K. S. Lee, P. Meemon, and J. P. Rolland, “Experimental investigations of the scanning functions of galvanometer-based scanners with applications in OCT,” Appl. Opt.50(29), 5735–5749 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Biomed. Opt. Express

• D. Y. Kim, J. Fingler, J. S. Werner, D. M. Schwartz, S. E. Fraser, and R. J. Zawadzki, “In vivo volumetric imaging of human retinal circulation with phase-variance optical coherence tomography,” Biomed. Opt. Express2(6), 1504–1513 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. S. Singh, C. Kolbitsch, T. Schmoll, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Stable absolute flow estimation with Doppler OCT based on virtual circumpapillary scans,” Biomed. Opt. Express1(4), 1047–1058 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Br. J. Ophthalmol.

• T. J. Fallon, P. Chowiencyzk, and E. M. Kohner, “Measurement of retinal blood flow in diabetes by the blue-light entoptic phenomenon,” Br. J. Ophthalmol.70(1), 43–46 (1986). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.

• P. Hossain, J. Liversidge, M. J. Cree, A. Manivannan, P. Vieira, P. F. Sharp, G. C. Brown, and J. V. Forrester, “In vivo cell tracking by scanning laser ophthalmoscopy: quantification of leukocyte kinetics,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.39(10), 1879–1887 (1998). [PubMed]
• R. W. Flower, A. W. Fryczkowski, and D. S. McLeod, “Variability in choriocapillaris blood flow distribution,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.36(7), 1247–1258 (1995). [PubMed]
• I. Takasu, F. Shiraga, T. Okanouchi, Y. Tsuchida, and H. Ohtsuki, “Evaluation of leukocyte dynamics in choroidal circulation with indocyanine green-stained leukocytes,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.41(10), 2844–2848 (2000). [PubMed]
• J. E. Grunwald, T. I. Metelitsina, J. C. Dupont, G. S. Ying, and M. G. Maguire, “Reduced foveolar choroidal blood flow in eyes with increasing AMD severity,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.46(3), 1033–1038 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. de Kinkelder, J. Kalkman, D. J. Faber, O. Schraa, P. H. Kok, F. D. Verbraak, and T. G. van Leeuwen, “Heartbeat-induced axial motion artifacts in optical coherence tomography measurements of the retina,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.52(6), 3908–3913 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Biomech. Eng.

• L. Zhu, Y. Zheng, C. H. von Kerczek, L. D. Topoleski, and R. W. Flower, “Feasibility of extracting velocity distribution in choriocapillaris in human eyes from ICG dye angiograms,” J. Biomech. Eng.128(2), 203–209 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Biomed. Opt.

• L. Yu and Z. Chen, “Doppler variance imaging for three-dimensional retina and choroid angiography,” J. Biomed. Opt.15(1), 016029 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Y. Wang, B. A. Bower, J. A. Izatt, O. Tan, and D. Huang, “Retinal blood flow measurement by circumpapillary Fourier domain Doppler optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt.13(6), 064003 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• L. An, H. M. Subhush, D. J. Wilson, and R. K. Wang, “High-resolution wide-field imaging of retinal and choroidal blood perfusion with optical microangiography,” J. Biomed. Opt.15(2), 026011 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Jpn. J. Ophthalmol.

• T. Okanouchi, F. Shiraga, I. Takasu, Y. Tsuchida, and H. Ohtsuki, “Evaluation of the dynamics of choroidal circulation in experimental acute hypertensionusing indocyanine green-stained leukocytes,” Jpn. J. Ophthalmol.47(6), 572–577 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Med. Image Comput. Comput. Assist. Interv.

• S. Ricco, M. Chen, H. Ishikawa, G. Wollstein, and J. Schuman, “Correcting motion artifacts in retinal spectral domain optical coherence tomography via image registration,” Med. Image Comput. Comput. Assist. Interv.12(Pt 1), 100–107 (2009). [PubMed]

Nat. Med.

• B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med.15(10), 1219–1223 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Ophthalmology

• L. A. Yannuzzi, K. T. Rohrer, L. J. Tindel, R. S. Sobel, M. A. Costanza, W. Shields, and E. Zang, “Fluorescein angiography complication survey,” Ophthalmology93(5), 611–617 (1986). [PubMed]
• M. Hope-Ross, L. A. Yannuzzi, E. S. Gragoudas, D. R. Guyer, J. S. Slakter, J. A. Sorenson, S. Krupsky, D. A. Orlock, and C. A. Puliafito, “Adverse reactions due to indocyanine green,” Ophthalmology101(3), 529–533 (1994). [PubMed]

Opt. Commun.

• V. X. D. Yang, M. L. Gordon, A. Mok, Y. H. Zhao, Z. P. Chen, R. S. C. Cobbold, B. C. Wilson, and I. A. Vitkin, “Improved phase-resolved optical Doppler tomography using the Kasai velocity estimator and histogram segmentation,” Opt. Commun.208(4-6), 209–214 (2002). [CrossRef]

Opt. Express

• B. Park, M. C. Pierce, B. Cense, S. H. Yun, M. Mujat, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, and J. de Boer, “Real-time fiber-based multi-functional spectral-domain optical coherence tomography at 1.3 microm,” Opt. Express13(11), 3931–3944 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• M. Szkulmowski, A. Szkulmowska, T. Bajraszewski, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Flow velocity estimation using joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express16(9), 6008–6025 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. H. Bachmann, M. L. Villiger, C. Blatter, T. Lasser, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Resonant Doppler flow imaging and optical vivisection of retinal blood vessels,” Opt. Express15(2), 408–422 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. Fingler, D. Schwartz, C. Yang, and S. E. Fraser, “Mobility and transverse flow visualization using phase variance contrast with spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express15(20), 12636–12653 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. White, M. Pierce, N. Nassif, B. Cense, B. Park, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, T. Chen, and J. de Boer, “In vivo dynamic human retinal blood flow imaging using ultra-high-speed spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(25), 3490–3497 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. Leitgeb, L. Schmetterer, W. Drexler, A. Fercher, R. Zawadzki, and T. Bajraszewski, “Real-time assessment of retinal blood flow with ultrafast acquisition by color Doppler Fourier domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express11(23), 3116–3121 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Makita, Y. Hong, M. Yamanari, T. Yatagai, and Y. Yasuno, “Optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express14(17), 7821–7840 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. K. Wang and S. Hurst, “Mapping of cerebro-vascular blood perfusion in mice with skin and skull intact by optical micro-angiography at 1.3 mum wavelength,” Opt. Express15(18), 11402–11412 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. Vakoc, S. Yun, J. de Boer, G. Tearney, and B. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express13(14), 5483–5493 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• I. Grulkowski, I. Gorczynska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Szkulmowska, R. A. Leitgeb, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT,” Opt. Express17(26), 23736–23754 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, V. A. Sicam, E. van Zeeburg, J. C. van Meurs, and J. F. de Boer, “Phase-stabilized optical frequency domain imaging at 1-µm for the measurement of blood flow in the human choroid,” Opt. Express19(21), 20886–20903 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Makita, J. Franck, M. Yamanari, M. Miura, and Y. Yasuno, “Comprehensive in vivo micro-vascular imaging of the human eye by dual-beam-scan Doppler optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1271–1283 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Zotter, M. Pircher, T. Torzicky, M. Bonesi, E. Götzinger, R. A. Leitgeb, and C. K. Hitzenberger, “Visualization of microvasculature by dual-beam phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express19(2), 1217–1227 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Jiao, R. Knighton, X. Huang, G. Gregori, and C. Puliafito, “Simultaneous acquisition of sectional and fundus ophthalmic images with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express13(2), 444–452 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, C. R. Vogel, and A. Roorda, “Design of an integrated hardware interface for AOSLO image capture and cone-targeted stimulus delivery,” Opt. Express18(17), 17841–17858 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• M. Szkulmowski, I. Gorczynska, D. Szlag, M. Sylwestrzak, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Efficient reduction of speckle noise in optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express20(2), 1337–1359 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• F. Jaillon, S. Makita, and Y. Yasuno, “Variable velocity range imaging of the choroid with dual-beam optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express20(1), 385–396 (2012). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Lett.

• M. K. Leung, A. Mariampillai, B. A. Standish, K. K. Lee, N. R. Munce, I. A. Vitkin, and V. X. Yang, “High-power wavelength-swept laser in Littman telescope-less polygon filter and dual-amplifier configuration for multichannel optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.34(18), 2814–2816 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• H. Ren, K. M. Brecke, Z. Ding, Y. Zhao, J. S. Nelson, and Z. Chen, “Imaging and quantifying transverse flow velocity with the Doppler bandwidth in a phase-resolved functional optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.27(6), 409–411 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. D. Ferguson, D. X. Hammer, L. A. Paunescu, S. Beaton, and J. S. Schuman, “Tracking optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.29(18), 2139–2141 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Makita, T. Fabritius, and Y. Yasuno, “Quantitative retinal-blood flow measurement with three-dimensional vessel geometry determination using ultrahigh-resolution Doppler optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Lett.33(8), 836–838 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Z. Chen, T. E. Milner, D. Dave, and J. S. Nelson, “Optical Doppler tomographic imaging of fluid flow velocity in highly scattering media,” Opt. Lett.22(1), 64–66 (1997). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• X. J. Wang, T. E. Milner, and J. S. Nelson, “Characterization of fluid flow velocity by optical Doppler tomography,” Opt. Lett.20(11), 1337–1339 (1995). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. A. Izatt, M. D. Kulkarni, S. Yazdanfar, J. K. Barton, and A. J. Welch, “In vivo bidirectional color Doppler flow imaging of picoliter blood volumes using optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.22(18), 1439–1441 (1997). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• Y. Zhao, Z. Chen, C. Saxer, S. Xiang, J. F. de Boer, and J. S. Nelson, “Phase-resolved optical coherence tomography and optical Doppler tomography for imaging blood flow in human skin with fast scanning speed and high velocity sensitivity,” Opt. Lett.25(2), 114–116 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Yazdanfar, A. M. Rollins, and J. A. Izatt, “Imaging and velocimetry of the human retinal circulation with color Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett.25(19), 1448–1450 (2000). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
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