Approaching the Lambertian limit in randomly textured thin-film solar cells

doi:10.1364/OE.19.00A865

Approaching the Lambertian limit in randomly textured thin-film solar cells

Stephan Fahr, Thomas Kirchartz, Carsten Rockstuhl, and Falk Lederer »View Author Affiliations

Optics Express, Vol. 19, Issue S4, pp. A865-A874 (2011)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.19.00A865

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Abstract

The Lambertian limit for solar cells is a benchmark for evaluating their efficiency. It has been shown that the performance of either extremely thick or extremely thin solar cells can be driven close to this limit by using an appropriate photon management. Here we show that this is likewise possible for realistic, practically relevant thin-film solar cells based on amorphous silicon. Most importantly, we achieve this goal by relying on random textures already incorporated into state-of-the-art superstrates; with the only subtlety that their topology has to be downscaled to typical feature sizes of about 100 nm.

OCIS Codes
(040.5350) Detectors : Photovoltaic
(290.0290) Scattering : Scattering
(310.0310) Thin films : Thin films
(350.6050) Other areas of optics : Solar energy

ToC Category:
Photovoltaics

History
Original Manuscript: April 19, 2011
Revised Manuscript: May 19, 2011
Manuscript Accepted: May 23, 2011
Published: June 22, 2011

Citation
Stephan Fahr, Thomas Kirchartz, Carsten Rockstuhl, and Falk Lederer, "Approaching the Lambertian limit in randomly textured thin-film solar cells," Opt. Express 19, A865-A874 (2011)
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-19-S4-A865

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References

R. Könenkamp, S. Muramatsu, H. Itoh, S. Matsubara, and T. Shimada, “Mobility-lifetime product in hydrogenated amorphous silicon,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 29, L2155–L2158 (1990). [CrossRef]
H. Okamoto, H. Kida, S. Nonomura, K. Fukumoto, and Y. Hamakawa, “Mobility-lifetime product and interface property in amorphous silicon solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 54, 3236–3243 (1983). [CrossRef]
D. L. Staebler and C. R. Wronski, “Reversible conductivity changes in discharge-produced amorphous Si,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 292–294 (1977). [CrossRef]
J. Müller, B. Rech, J. Springer, and M. Vanecek, “TCO and light trapping in silicon thin film solar cells,” Sol. Energy 77, 917–930 (2004). [CrossRef]
M. Kroll, S. Fahr, C. Helgert, C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, and T. Pertsch, “Employing dielectric diffractive structures in solar cells - a numerical study,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2777–2795 (2008). [CrossRef]
J. Grandidier, D. M. Callahan, N. Munday, and H. A. Atwater, “Light Absorption Enhancement in Thin-Film Solar Cells Using Whispering Gallery Modes in Dielectric Nanospheres,” Adv. Mater. 23, 5 (2011).
C. Ulbrich, S. Fahr, J. Üpping, M. Peters, T. Kirchartz, C. Rockstuhl, R. Wehrspohn, A. Gombert, F. Lederer, and U. Rau, “Directional selectivity and ultra-light-trapping in solar cells,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2831–2843 (2008). [CrossRef]
L. Cao, P. Fan, A. P. Vasudev, J. S. White, Z. Yu, W. Cai, J. A. Schuller, S. Fan, and M. L. Brongersma, “Semiconductor nanowire optical antenna solar absorbers,” Nano Letters 10, 439–445 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
J. Zhu, Z. Yu, G. F. Burkhard, C. Hsu, S. T. Connor, Y. Xu, Q. Wang, M. McGehee, S. Fan, and Y. Cui, “Optical absorption enhancement in amorphous silicon nanowire and nanocone arrays,” Nano Lett. 9, 279–282 (2009). [CrossRef]
C. Rockstuhl, S. Fahr, and F. Lederer, “Absorption enhancement in solar cells by localized plasmon polaritons,” J. Appl. Phys. 104, 123102 (2008). [CrossRef]
Y. A. Akimov, W. S. Koh, and K. Ostrikov, “Enhancement of optical absorption in thin-film solar cells through the excitation of higher-order nanoparticle plasmon modes,” Opt. Express 17, 10195–10205 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
E. Yablonovitch, “Statistical ray optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. (1917–1983) 72, 899–907 (1982). [CrossRef]
P. Campbell, “Enhancement of light absorption from randomizing and geometric textures,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 10, 2410–2415 (1993). [CrossRef]
P. Campbell and M. A. Green, “Light trapping properties of pyramidally textured surfaces,” J. Appl. Phys. 62, 243–249 (1987). [CrossRef]
S. E. Han and G. Chen, “Toward the Lambertian limit of light trapping in thin nanostructured silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 10, 4692–4696 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
M. A. Green, “Enhanced evanescent mode light trapping in organic solar cells and other low index optoelectronic devices,” Prog. Photovoltaics 19(4), 473–477 (2010). [CrossRef]
Z. Yu, A. Raman, and S. Fan, “Fundamental limit of nanophotonic light trapping in solar cells,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 17491–17496 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
O. Kluth, B. Rech, L. Houben, S. Wieder, G. Schöpe, C. Beneking, H. Wagner, A. Löffl, and H. W. Schock, “Texture etched ZnO:Al coated glass substrates for silicon based thin film solar cells,” Thin Solid Films 351, 247–253 (1999). [CrossRef]
S. Nicolay, M. Despeisse, F. J. Haug, and B. Ballif, “Control of LPCVD ZnO growth modes for improved light trapping in thin film silicon solar cells,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 95, 1031–1034 (2011). [CrossRef]
M. G. Moharam, E. B. Grann, D. A. Pommet, and T. K. Gaylord, “Formulation for stable and efficient implementation of the rigorous coupled-wave analysis of binary gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 12, 1068–1076 (1995). [CrossRef]
O. Vetterl, F. Finger, R. Carius, P. Hapke, L. Houben, O. Kluth, A. Lambertz, A. Mück, B. Rech, and H. Wagner, “Intrinsic microcrystalline silicon: a new material for photovoltaics,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 62, 97–108 (2000). [CrossRef]
M. Zeman, R. A. C. M. M. van Swaaij, J. W. Metselaar, and R. E. I. Schropp, “Optical modeling of a-Si:H solar cells with rough interfaces: effect of back contact and interface roughness,” J. Appl. Phys. 88, 6436–6443 (2000). [CrossRef]
C. Rockstuhl, S. Fahr, K. Bittkau, T. Beckers, R. Carius, F.-J. Haug, T. Söderström, C. Ballif, and F. Lederer, “Comparison and optimization of randomly textured surfaces in thin-film solar cells,” Opt. Express 18, A335–A341 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
J. Steinhauser, S. Faÿ, N. Oliveira, E. Vallat-Sauvain, and C. Ballif, “Transition between grain boundary and intragrain scattering transport mechanisms in boron-doped zinc oxide thin films,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 142107 (2007). [CrossRef]
M. Berginski, J. Hüpkes, M. Schulte, G. Schöpe, H. Stiebig, B. Rech, and M. Wuttig, “The effect of front ZnO:Al surface texture and optical transparency on efficient light trapping in silicon thin-film solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 101, 074903 (2007). [CrossRef]
W. H. Southwell, “Gradient-index antireflection coatings,” Opt. Lett. 8, 584–586 (1983). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
M. J. Keevers, T. L. Young, U. Schubert, and M. A. Green, “10% Efficient CSG minimodules,” Proceedings of the 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Milan (2007).
K. Bittkau, R. Carius, and C. Lienau, “Guided optical modes in randomly textured ZnO thin films imaged by near-field scanning optical microscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 76, 035330 (2007). [CrossRef]
C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, K. Bittkau, and R. Carius, “Light localization at randomly textured surfaces for solar-cell applications,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 171104 (2007). [CrossRef]
ASTM Standard G173-03, URL: http://www.astm.org
M. A. Green, “Lambertian light trapping in textured solar cells and light-emitting diodes: analytical solutions,” Prog. Photovoltaics 10, 235–241 (2002). [CrossRef]
C. Battaglia, J. Escarré, K. Söderström, L. Erni, L. Ding, G. Bugnon, A. Billet, M. Boccard, L. Barraud, S. de Wolf, F. Haug, M. Despeisse, and C. Ballif, “Nanoimprint lithography for high-efficiency thin-film silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 11, 661–665 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Akimov, Y. A.
Atwater, H. A.
Ballif, B.
Ballif, C.
Barraud, L.
Battaglia, C.
Beckers, T.
Beneking, C.
Berginski, M.
Billet, A.
Bittkau, K.
Boccard, M.
Brongersma, M. L.
Bugnon, G.
Burkhard, G. F.
Cai, W.
Callahan, D. M.
Campbell, P.
Cao, L.
Carius, R.
Chen, G.
Connor, S. T.
Cui, Y.
de Wolf, S.
Despeisse, M.
Ding, L.
Erni, L.
Escarré, J.
Fahr, S.
Fan, P.
Fan, S.
Faÿ, S.
Finger, F.
Fukumoto, K.
Gaylord, T. K.
Gombert, A.
Grandidier, J.
Grann, E. B.
Green, M. A.
Hamakawa, Y.
Han, S. E.
Hapke, P.
Haug, F.
Haug, F. J.
Haug, F.-J.
Helgert, C.
Houben, L.
Hsu, C.
Hüpkes, J.
Itoh, H.
Kida, H.
Kirchartz, T.
Kluth, O.
Koh, W. S.
Könenkamp, R.
Kroll, M.
Lambertz, A.
Lederer, F.
Lienau, C.
Löffl, A.
Matsubara, S.
McGehee, M.
Metselaar, J. W.
Moharam, M. G.
Mück, A.
Müller, J.
Munday, N.
Muramatsu, S.
Nicolay, S.
Nonomura, S.
Okamoto, H.
Oliveira, N.
Ostrikov, K.
Pertsch, T.
Peters, M.
Pommet, D. A.
Raman, A.
Rau, U.
Rech, B.
Rockstuhl, C.
Schock, H. W.
Schöpe, G.
Schropp, R. E. I.
Schuller, J. A.
Schulte, M.
Shimada, T.
Söderström, K.
Söderström, T.
Southwell, W. H.
Springer, J.
Staebler, D. L.
Steinhauser, J.
Stiebig, H.
Ulbrich, C.
Üpping, J.
Vallat-Sauvain, E.
van Swaaij, R. A. C. M. M.
Vanecek, M.
Vasudev, A. P.
Vetterl, O.
Wagner, H.
Wang, Q.
Wehrspohn, R.
White, J. S.
Wieder, S.
Wronski, C. R.
Wuttig, M.
Xu, Y.
Yablonovitch, E.
Yu, Z.
Zeman, M.
Zhu, J.

Adv. Mater.

J. Grandidier, D. M. Callahan, N. Munday, and H. A. Atwater, “Light Absorption Enhancement in Thin-Film Solar Cells Using Whispering Gallery Modes in Dielectric Nanospheres,” Adv. Mater. 23, 5 (2011).

Appl. Phys. Lett.

D. L. Staebler and C. R. Wronski, “Reversible conductivity changes in discharge-produced amorphous Si,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 292–294 (1977). [CrossRef]
J. Steinhauser, S. Faÿ, N. Oliveira, E. Vallat-Sauvain, and C. Ballif, “Transition between grain boundary and intragrain scattering transport mechanisms in boron-doped zinc oxide thin films,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 142107 (2007). [CrossRef]
C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, K. Bittkau, and R. Carius, “Light localization at randomly textured surfaces for solar-cell applications,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 171104 (2007). [CrossRef]

J. Appl. Phys.

M. Zeman, R. A. C. M. M. van Swaaij, J. W. Metselaar, and R. E. I. Schropp, “Optical modeling of a-Si:H solar cells with rough interfaces: effect of back contact and interface roughness,” J. Appl. Phys. 88, 6436–6443 (2000). [CrossRef]
M. Berginski, J. Hüpkes, M. Schulte, G. Schöpe, H. Stiebig, B. Rech, and M. Wuttig, “The effect of front ZnO:Al surface texture and optical transparency on efficient light trapping in silicon thin-film solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 101, 074903 (2007). [CrossRef]
H. Okamoto, H. Kida, S. Nonomura, K. Fukumoto, and Y. Hamakawa, “Mobility-lifetime product and interface property in amorphous silicon solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 54, 3236–3243 (1983). [CrossRef]
C. Rockstuhl, S. Fahr, and F. Lederer, “Absorption enhancement in solar cells by localized plasmon polaritons,” J. Appl. Phys. 104, 123102 (2008). [CrossRef]
P. Campbell and M. A. Green, “Light trapping properties of pyramidally textured surfaces,” J. Appl. Phys. 62, 243–249 (1987). [CrossRef]

J. Opt. Soc. Am.

E. Yablonovitch, “Statistical ray optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. (1917–1983) 72, 899–907 (1982). [CrossRef]

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A

M. G. Moharam, E. B. Grann, D. A. Pommet, and T. K. Gaylord, “Formulation for stable and efficient implementation of the rigorous coupled-wave analysis of binary gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 12, 1068–1076 (1995). [CrossRef]

J. Opt. Soc. Am. B

P. Campbell, “Enhancement of light absorption from randomizing and geometric textures,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 10, 2410–2415 (1993). [CrossRef]

Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.

R. Könenkamp, S. Muramatsu, H. Itoh, S. Matsubara, and T. Shimada, “Mobility-lifetime product in hydrogenated amorphous silicon,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 29, L2155–L2158 (1990). [CrossRef]

Nano Lett.

S. E. Han and G. Chen, “Toward the Lambertian limit of light trapping in thin nanostructured silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 10, 4692–4696 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
J. Zhu, Z. Yu, G. F. Burkhard, C. Hsu, S. T. Connor, Y. Xu, Q. Wang, M. McGehee, S. Fan, and Y. Cui, “Optical absorption enhancement in amorphous silicon nanowire and nanocone arrays,” Nano Lett. 9, 279–282 (2009). [CrossRef]
C. Battaglia, J. Escarré, K. Söderström, L. Erni, L. Ding, G. Bugnon, A. Billet, M. Boccard, L. Barraud, S. de Wolf, F. Haug, M. Despeisse, and C. Ballif, “Nanoimprint lithography for high-efficiency thin-film silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 11, 661–665 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Nano Letters

L. Cao, P. Fan, A. P. Vasudev, J. S. White, Z. Yu, W. Cai, J. A. Schuller, S. Fan, and M. L. Brongersma, “Semiconductor nanowire optical antenna solar absorbers,” Nano Letters 10, 439–445 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Express

Opt. Lett.

W. H. Southwell, “Gradient-index antireflection coatings,” Opt. Lett. 8, 584–586 (1983). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Phys. Rev. B

K. Bittkau, R. Carius, and C. Lienau, “Guided optical modes in randomly textured ZnO thin films imaged by near-field scanning optical microscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 76, 035330 (2007). [CrossRef]

Phys. Status Solidi A

M. Kroll, S. Fahr, C. Helgert, C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, and T. Pertsch, “Employing dielectric diffractive structures in solar cells - a numerical study,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2777–2795 (2008). [CrossRef]
C. Ulbrich, S. Fahr, J. Üpping, M. Peters, T. Kirchartz, C. Rockstuhl, R. Wehrspohn, A. Gombert, F. Lederer, and U. Rau, “Directional selectivity and ultra-light-trapping in solar cells,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2831–2843 (2008). [CrossRef]

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

Z. Yu, A. Raman, and S. Fan, “Fundamental limit of nanophotonic light trapping in solar cells,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 17491–17496 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Prog. Photovoltaics

M. A. Green, “Enhanced evanescent mode light trapping in organic solar cells and other low index optoelectronic devices,” Prog. Photovoltaics 19(4), 473–477 (2010). [CrossRef]
M. A. Green, “Lambertian light trapping in textured solar cells and light-emitting diodes: analytical solutions,” Prog. Photovoltaics 10, 235–241 (2002). [CrossRef]

Sol. Energy

J. Müller, B. Rech, J. Springer, and M. Vanecek, “TCO and light trapping in silicon thin film solar cells,” Sol. Energy 77, 917–930 (2004). [CrossRef]

Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells

S. Nicolay, M. Despeisse, F. J. Haug, and B. Ballif, “Control of LPCVD ZnO growth modes for improved light trapping in thin film silicon solar cells,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 95, 1031–1034 (2011). [CrossRef]
O. Vetterl, F. Finger, R. Carius, P. Hapke, L. Houben, O. Kluth, A. Lambertz, A. Mück, B. Rech, and H. Wagner, “Intrinsic microcrystalline silicon: a new material for photovoltaics,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 62, 97–108 (2000). [CrossRef]

Thin Solid Films

O. Kluth, B. Rech, L. Houben, S. Wieder, G. Schöpe, C. Beneking, H. Wagner, A. Löffl, and H. W. Schock, “Texture etched ZnO:Al coated glass substrates for silicon based thin film solar cells,” Thin Solid Films 351, 247–253 (1999). [CrossRef]

Other

M. J. Keevers, T. L. Young, U. Schubert, and M. A. Green, “10% Efficient CSG minimodules,” Proceedings of the 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Milan (2007).
ASTM Standard G173-03, URL: http://www.astm.org

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[1] R. Könenkamp, S. Muramatsu, H. Itoh, S. Matsubara, and T. Shimada, “Mobility-lifetime product in hydrogenated amorphous silicon,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 29, L2155–L2158 (1990). [CrossRef]

[2] H. Okamoto, H. Kida, S. Nonomura, K. Fukumoto, and Y. Hamakawa, “Mobility-lifetime product and interface property in amorphous silicon solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 54, 3236–3243 (1983). [CrossRef]

[3] D. L. Staebler and C. R. Wronski, “Reversible conductivity changes in discharge-produced amorphous Si,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 31, 292–294 (1977). [CrossRef]

[4] J. Müller, B. Rech, J. Springer, and M. Vanecek, “TCO and light trapping in silicon thin film solar cells,” Sol. Energy 77, 917–930 (2004). [CrossRef]

[5] M. Kroll, S. Fahr, C. Helgert, C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, and T. Pertsch, “Employing dielectric diffractive structures in solar cells - a numerical study,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2777–2795 (2008). [CrossRef]

[6] J. Grandidier, D. M. Callahan, N. Munday, and H. A. Atwater, “Light Absorption Enhancement in Thin-Film Solar Cells Using Whispering Gallery Modes in Dielectric Nanospheres,” Adv. Mater. 23, 5 (2011).

[7] C. Ulbrich, S. Fahr, J. Üpping, M. Peters, T. Kirchartz, C. Rockstuhl, R. Wehrspohn, A. Gombert, F. Lederer, and U. Rau, “Directional selectivity and ultra-light-trapping in solar cells,” Phys. Status Solidi A 205, 2831–2843 (2008). [CrossRef]

[8] L. Cao, P. Fan, A. P. Vasudev, J. S. White, Z. Yu, W. Cai, J. A. Schuller, S. Fan, and M. L. Brongersma, “Semiconductor nanowire optical antenna solar absorbers,” Nano Letters 10, 439–445 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[9] J. Zhu, Z. Yu, G. F. Burkhard, C. Hsu, S. T. Connor, Y. Xu, Q. Wang, M. McGehee, S. Fan, and Y. Cui, “Optical absorption enhancement in amorphous silicon nanowire and nanocone arrays,” Nano Lett. 9, 279–282 (2009). [CrossRef]

[10] C. Rockstuhl, S. Fahr, and F. Lederer, “Absorption enhancement in solar cells by localized plasmon polaritons,” J. Appl. Phys. 104, 123102 (2008). [CrossRef]

[11] Y. A. Akimov, W. S. Koh, and K. Ostrikov, “Enhancement of optical absorption in thin-film solar cells through the excitation of higher-order nanoparticle plasmon modes,” Opt. Express 17, 10195–10205 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[12] E. Yablonovitch, “Statistical ray optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. (1917–1983) 72, 899–907 (1982). [CrossRef]

[13] P. Campbell, “Enhancement of light absorption from randomizing and geometric textures,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 10, 2410–2415 (1993). [CrossRef]

[14] P. Campbell and M. A. Green, “Light trapping properties of pyramidally textured surfaces,” J. Appl. Phys. 62, 243–249 (1987). [CrossRef]

[15] S. E. Han and G. Chen, “Toward the Lambertian limit of light trapping in thin nanostructured silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 10, 4692–4696 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[16] M. A. Green, “Enhanced evanescent mode light trapping in organic solar cells and other low index optoelectronic devices,” Prog. Photovoltaics 19(4), 473–477 (2010). [CrossRef]

[17] Z. Yu, A. Raman, and S. Fan, “Fundamental limit of nanophotonic light trapping in solar cells,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 17491–17496 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[18] O. Kluth, B. Rech, L. Houben, S. Wieder, G. Schöpe, C. Beneking, H. Wagner, A. Löffl, and H. W. Schock, “Texture etched ZnO:Al coated glass substrates for silicon based thin film solar cells,” Thin Solid Films 351, 247–253 (1999). [CrossRef]

[19] S. Nicolay, M. Despeisse, F. J. Haug, and B. Ballif, “Control of LPCVD ZnO growth modes for improved light trapping in thin film silicon solar cells,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 95, 1031–1034 (2011). [CrossRef]

[20] M. G. Moharam, E. B. Grann, D. A. Pommet, and T. K. Gaylord, “Formulation for stable and efficient implementation of the rigorous coupled-wave analysis of binary gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 12, 1068–1076 (1995). [CrossRef]

[21] O. Vetterl, F. Finger, R. Carius, P. Hapke, L. Houben, O. Kluth, A. Lambertz, A. Mück, B. Rech, and H. Wagner, “Intrinsic microcrystalline silicon: a new material for photovoltaics,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 62, 97–108 (2000). [CrossRef]

[22] M. Zeman, R. A. C. M. M. van Swaaij, J. W. Metselaar, and R. E. I. Schropp, “Optical modeling of a-Si:H solar cells with rough interfaces: effect of back contact and interface roughness,” J. Appl. Phys. 88, 6436–6443 (2000). [CrossRef]

[23] C. Rockstuhl, S. Fahr, K. Bittkau, T. Beckers, R. Carius, F.-J. Haug, T. Söderström, C. Ballif, and F. Lederer, “Comparison and optimization of randomly textured surfaces in thin-film solar cells,” Opt. Express 18, A335–A341 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[24] J. Steinhauser, S. Faÿ, N. Oliveira, E. Vallat-Sauvain, and C. Ballif, “Transition between grain boundary and intragrain scattering transport mechanisms in boron-doped zinc oxide thin films,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 142107 (2007). [CrossRef]

[25] M. Berginski, J. Hüpkes, M. Schulte, G. Schöpe, H. Stiebig, B. Rech, and M. Wuttig, “The effect of front ZnO:Al surface texture and optical transparency on efficient light trapping in silicon thin-film solar cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 101, 074903 (2007). [CrossRef]

[26] W. H. Southwell, “Gradient-index antireflection coatings,” Opt. Lett. 8, 584–586 (1983). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[27] M. J. Keevers, T. L. Young, U. Schubert, and M. A. Green, “10% Efficient CSG minimodules,” Proceedings of the 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Milan (2007).

[28] K. Bittkau, R. Carius, and C. Lienau, “Guided optical modes in randomly textured ZnO thin films imaged by near-field scanning optical microscopy,” Phys. Rev. B 76, 035330 (2007). [CrossRef]

[29] C. Rockstuhl, F. Lederer, K. Bittkau, and R. Carius, “Light localization at randomly textured surfaces for solar-cell applications,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 171104 (2007). [CrossRef]

[30] ASTM Standard G173-03, URL: http://www.astm.org

[31] M. A. Green, “Lambertian light trapping in textured solar cells and light-emitting diodes: analytical solutions,” Prog. Photovoltaics 10, 235–241 (2002). [CrossRef]

[32] C. Battaglia, J. Escarré, K. Söderström, L. Erni, L. Ding, G. Bugnon, A. Billet, M. Boccard, L. Barraud, S. de Wolf, F. Haug, M. Despeisse, and C. Ballif, “Nanoimprint lithography for high-efficiency thin-film silicon solar cells,” Nano Lett. 11, 661–665 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

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Approaching the Lambertian limit in randomly textured thin-film solar cells