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MNOS stack for reliable, low optical loss, Cu based CMOS plasmonic devicesAlexandros Emboras, Adel Najar, Siddharth Nambiar, Philippe Grosse, Emmanuel Augendre, Charles Leroux, Barbara de Salvo, and Roch Espiau de Lamaestre »View Author Affiliations
Alexandros Emboras,
Adel Najar,
Siddharth Nambiar,
Philippe Grosse,
Emmanuel Augendre,
Charles Leroux,
Barbara de Salvo,
and Roch Espiau de Lamaestre*
CEA, LETI, Minatec Campus, 17 rue des martyrs, F-38042 Grenoble, France *Corresponding author: roch.espiau-de-lamaestre@cea.fr |
Optics Express, Vol. 20, Issue 13, pp. 13612-13621 (2012)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.013612
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Abstract
We study the electro optical properties of a Metal-Nitride-Oxide-Silicon (MNOS) stack for a use in CMOS compatible plasmonic active devices. We show that the insertion of an ultrathin stoichiometric Si3N4 layer in a MOS stack lead to an increase in the electrical reliability of a copper gate MNOS capacitance from 50 to 95% thanks to a diffusion barrier effect, while preserving the low optical losses brought by the use of copper as the plasmon supporting metal. An experimental investigation is undertaken at a wafer scale using some CMOS standard processes of the LETI foundry. Optical transmission measurments conducted in a MNOS channel waveguide configuration coupled to standard silicon photonics circuitry confirms the very low optical losses (0.39 dB.μm−1), in good agreement with predictions using ellipsometric optical constants of Cu.
© 2012 OSA
OCIS Codes
(230.7370) Optical devices : Waveguides
(240.6680) Optics at surfaces : Surface plasmons
(250.5403) Optoelectronics : Plasmonics
ToC Category:
Optics at Surfaces
History
Original Manuscript: February 24, 2012
Manuscript Accepted: April 2, 2012
Published: June 4, 2012
Citation
Alexandros Emboras, Adel Najar, Siddharth Nambiar, Philippe Grosse, Emmanuel Augendre, Charles Leroux, Barbara de Salvo, and Roch Espiau de Lamaestre, "MNOS stack for reliable, low optical loss, Cu based CMOS plasmonic devices," Opt. Express 20, 13612-13621 (2012)
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-20-13-13612
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References
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- M. L. Green, E. P. Gusev, R. Degraeve, and E. L. Garfunkel, “Ultrathin (<4 nm) SiO2 and Si–O–N gate dielectric layers for silicon microelectronics: understanding the processing, structure, and physical and electrical limits,” J. Electrochem. Soc.90, 2057–2121 (2001).
- C. Delacour, S. Blaize, P. Grosse, J. M. Fedeli, A. Bruyant, R. Salas-Montiel, G. Lerondel, and A. Chelnokov, “Efficient directional coupling between silicon and copper plasmonic nanoslot waveguides: toward metal-oxide-silicon nanophotonics.” Nano Lett.10, 2922–2926 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- W. L. Barnes, A. Dereux, and T. W. Ebbesen, “Surface plasmon subwavelength optics,” Nature424, 824–830 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- J. A. Dionne, K. Diest, L. A. Sweatlock, and H. A. Atwater, “Plasmostor: A metal–oxide–Si field effect plasmonic modulator,” Nano Lett.9, 897–902 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- J. A. Dionne, K. Diest, L. A. Sweatlock, and H. A. Atwater, “Plasmostor: A metal–oxide–Si field effect plasmonic modulator,” Nano Lett.9, 897–902 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- R. J. Gutmann, J. M. Steigerwald, L. You, D. T. Price, J. Neirynck, D. J. Duquette, and S. P. Murarka, “Chemical-mechanical polishing of copper with oxide and polymer interlevel dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films270, 596–600 (1995). [CrossRef]
- W. L. Barnes, A. Dereux, and T. W. Ebbesen, “Surface plasmon subwavelength optics,” Nature424, 824–830 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- R. Rosenberg, D. C. Edelstein, C.-K. Hu, and K. P. Rodbell, “Copper metallization for high performance silicon technology,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci.30, 229–262 (2000). [CrossRef]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- V. Jousseaume, M. Assous, A. Zenasni, S. Maitrejean, B. Remiat, P. Leduc, H. Trouve, C. Le Cornec, M. Fayolle, A. Roule, F. Ciaramella, D. Bouchu, T. David, A. Roman, D. Scevola, T. Morel, D. Rebiscoul, G. Prokopowicz, M. Jackman, C. Guedj, D. Louis, M. Gallagher, and G. Passemard, “Cu/ULK (k=2.0) integration for 45 nm node and below using an improved hybrid material with conventional BEOL processing and a late porogen removal,” in “Proceedings of the IEEE 2005 International Interconnect Technology Conference,” 60–62 (2005).
- C. Delacour, S. Blaize, P. Grosse, J. M. Fedeli, A. Bruyant, R. Salas-Montiel, G. Lerondel, and A. Chelnokov, “Efficient directional coupling between silicon and copper plasmonic nanoslot waveguides: toward metal-oxide-silicon nanophotonics.” Nano Lett.10, 2922–2926 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- K. Holloway, P. M. Fryer, C. Cabral, J. M. E. Harper, P. J. Bailey, and K. H. Kelleher, “Tantalum as a diffusion barrier between copper and silicon: Failure mechanism and effect of nitrogen additions,” J. Appl. Phys.71, 5433–5444 (1992). [CrossRef]
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- Y. Shi, X. Wang, and T.-P. Ma, “Electrical properties of high-quality ultrathin nitride/oxide stack dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. Electron Dev.46, 362–368 (1999). [CrossRef]
- M. Y. Kwak, D. H. Shin, T. W. Kang, and K. N. Kim, “Characteristics of tin barrier layer against cu diffusion,” Thin Solid Films339, 290–293 (1999). [CrossRef]
- J. D. McBrayer, R. M. Swanson, and T. W. Sigmon, “Diffusion of metals in silicon dioxide,” J. Electrochem. Soc.133, 1242–1246 (1986). [CrossRef]
- A. Snyder and J. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman and Hall, 1983).
- R. J. Gutmann, J. M. Steigerwald, L. You, D. T. Price, J. Neirynck, D. J. Duquette, and S. P. Murarka, “Chemical-mechanical polishing of copper with oxide and polymer interlevel dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films270, 596–600 (1995). [CrossRef]
- J. D. McBrayer, R. M. Swanson, and T. W. Sigmon, “Diffusion of metals in silicon dioxide,” J. Electrochem. Soc.133, 1242–1246 (1986). [CrossRef]
- J. A. Dionne, K. Diest, L. A. Sweatlock, and H. A. Atwater, “Plasmostor: A metal–oxide–Si field effect plasmonic modulator,” Nano Lett.9, 897–902 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- C. Leroux, F. Allain, A. Toffoli, G. Ghibaudo, and G. Reimbold, “Automatic statistical full quantum analysis of C-V and I-V characteristics for advanced mos gate stacks,” Microelectron. Eng.84, 2408–2411 (2007). [CrossRef]
- V. Jousseaume, M. Assous, A. Zenasni, S. Maitrejean, B. Remiat, P. Leduc, H. Trouve, C. Le Cornec, M. Fayolle, A. Roule, F. Ciaramella, D. Bouchu, T. David, A. Roman, D. Scevola, T. Morel, D. Rebiscoul, G. Prokopowicz, M. Jackman, C. Guedj, D. Louis, M. Gallagher, and G. Passemard, “Cu/ULK (k=2.0) integration for 45 nm node and below using an improved hybrid material with conventional BEOL processing and a late porogen removal,” in “Proceedings of the IEEE 2005 International Interconnect Technology Conference,” 60–62 (2005).
- G. Ghibaudo, G. Pananakakis, R. Kies, E. Vincent, and C. Papadas, “Accelerated dielectric breakdown and wear out standard testing methods and structures for reliability evaluation of thin oxides,” Microelectron. Reliab.39, 597–613 (1999). [CrossRef]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- T. Wang, Y. Cheng, Y. Wang, T. Hsieh, G. Hwang, and C. Chen, “Comparison of characteristics and integration of copper diffusion-barrier dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films498, 36–42 (2006). [CrossRef]
- Y. Shi, X. Wang, and T.-P. Ma, “Electrical properties of high-quality ultrathin nitride/oxide stack dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. Electron Dev.46, 362–368 (1999). [CrossRef]
- T. Wang, Y. Cheng, Y. Wang, T. Hsieh, G. Hwang, and C. Chen, “Comparison of characteristics and integration of copper diffusion-barrier dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films498, 36–42 (2006). [CrossRef]
- A. A. Istratov and E. R. Weber, “Physics of copper in silicon,” J. Electrochem. Soc.149, G21–G30 (2002). [CrossRef]
- H. Jin and K. J. Weber, “The effect of LPCVD silicon nitride deposition on the Si-SiO2 interface of oxidized silicon wafers,” J. Electrochem. Soc.154, H5–H8 (2007). [CrossRef]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- B. G. Willis and D. V. Lang, “Oxidation mechanism of ionic transport of copper in sio2 dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films467, 284–293 (2004). [CrossRef]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- K.-M. Chang, W.-C. Yang, C.-F. Chen, and B.-F. Hung, “The changing effect of N2/O2 gas flow rate ratios on ultrathin nitrogen-enriched oxynitride gate dielectrics,” J. Electrochem. Soc.151, F118–F122 (2004). [CrossRef]
- R. J. Gutmann, J. M. Steigerwald, L. You, D. T. Price, J. Neirynck, D. J. Duquette, and S. P. Murarka, “Chemical-mechanical polishing of copper with oxide and polymer interlevel dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films270, 596–600 (1995). [CrossRef]
- V. Jousseaume, M. Assous, A. Zenasni, S. Maitrejean, B. Remiat, P. Leduc, H. Trouve, C. Le Cornec, M. Fayolle, A. Roule, F. Ciaramella, D. Bouchu, T. David, A. Roman, D. Scevola, T. Morel, D. Rebiscoul, G. Prokopowicz, M. Jackman, C. Guedj, D. Louis, M. Gallagher, and G. Passemard, “Cu/ULK (k=2.0) integration for 45 nm node and below using an improved hybrid material with conventional BEOL processing and a late porogen removal,” in “Proceedings of the IEEE 2005 International Interconnect Technology Conference,” 60–62 (2005).
- S. Zhu, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, “Electro-absorption modulation in horizontal metal-insulator-silicon-insulator-metal nanoplasmonic slot waveguides,” Appl. Phys. Lett.99, 151114–151116 (2011). [CrossRef]
- S. Zhu, T. Y. Liow, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, “Silicon-based horizontal nanoplasmonic slot waveguides for on-chip integration,” Opt. Express19, 8888–8902 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- R. Zia, J. A. Schuller, A. Chandran, and M. L. Brongersma, “Plasmonics: the next chip-scale technology,” Mater. Today9, 20–27 (2006). [CrossRef]
Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci.
- R. Rosenberg, D. C. Edelstein, C.-K. Hu, and K. P. Rodbell, “Copper metallization for high performance silicon technology,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci.30, 229–262 (2000). [CrossRef]
Appl. Phys. Lett.
- S. Zhu, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, “Electro-absorption modulation in horizontal metal-insulator-silicon-insulator-metal nanoplasmonic slot waveguides,” Appl. Phys. Lett.99, 151114–151116 (2011). [CrossRef]
IEEE Trans. Electron Dev.
- Y. Shi, X. Wang, and T.-P. Ma, “Electrical properties of high-quality ultrathin nitride/oxide stack dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. Electron Dev.46, 362–368 (1999). [CrossRef]
J. Appl. Phys.
- H. Miyazaki, H. Kojima, and K. Hinode, “Passivation effect of silicon nitride against copper diffusion,” J. Appl. Phys.81, 7746–7750 (1997). [CrossRef]
- K. Holloway, P. M. Fryer, C. Cabral, J. M. E. Harper, P. J. Bailey, and K. H. Kelleher, “Tantalum as a diffusion barrier between copper and silicon: Failure mechanism and effect of nitrogen additions,” J. Appl. Phys.71, 5433–5444 (1992). [CrossRef]
J. Electrochem. Soc.
- A. S. Lee, N. Rajagopalan, M. Le, B. H. Kim, and H. M’Saad, “Development and characterization of a PECVD silicon nitride for damascene applications,” J. Electrochem. Soc.151, F7–F9 (2004). [CrossRef]
- M. L. Green, E. P. Gusev, R. Degraeve, and E. L. Garfunkel, “Ultrathin (<4 nm) SiO2 and Si–O–N gate dielectric layers for silicon microelectronics: understanding the processing, structure, and physical and electrical limits,” J. Electrochem. Soc.90, 2057–2121 (2001).
- K.-M. Chang, W.-C. Yang, C.-F. Chen, and B.-F. Hung, “The changing effect of N2/O2 gas flow rate ratios on ultrathin nitrogen-enriched oxynitride gate dielectrics,” J. Electrochem. Soc.151, F118–F122 (2004). [CrossRef]
- A. A. Istratov and E. R. Weber, “Physics of copper in silicon,” J. Electrochem. Soc.149, G21–G30 (2002). [CrossRef]
- J. D. McBrayer, R. M. Swanson, and T. W. Sigmon, “Diffusion of metals in silicon dioxide,” J. Electrochem. Soc.133, 1242–1246 (1986). [CrossRef]
- H. Jin and K. J. Weber, “The effect of LPCVD silicon nitride deposition on the Si-SiO2 interface of oxidized silicon wafers,” J. Electrochem. Soc.154, H5–H8 (2007). [CrossRef]
J. Lightwave Technol.
- C. Kopp, E. Augendre, R. Orobtchouk, O. Lemonnier, and J.-M. Fedeli, “Enhanced fiber grating coupler integrated by wafer-to-wafer bonding,” J. Lightwave Technol.29, 1847–1851 (2011). [CrossRef]
- M. Lipson, “Guiding, modulating, and emitting light on silicon-challenges and opportunities,” J. Lightwave Technol.23, 4222–4238 (2005). [CrossRef]
Mater. Today
- R. Zia, J. A. Schuller, A. Chandran, and M. L. Brongersma, “Plasmonics: the next chip-scale technology,” Mater. Today9, 20–27 (2006). [CrossRef]
Microelectron. Eng.
- C. Leroux, F. Allain, A. Toffoli, G. Ghibaudo, and G. Reimbold, “Automatic statistical full quantum analysis of C-V and I-V characteristics for advanced mos gate stacks,” Microelectron. Eng.84, 2408–2411 (2007). [CrossRef]
Microelectron. Reliab.
- G. Ghibaudo, G. Pananakakis, R. Kies, E. Vincent, and C. Papadas, “Accelerated dielectric breakdown and wear out standard testing methods and structures for reliability evaluation of thin oxides,” Microelectron. Reliab.39, 597–613 (1999). [CrossRef]
Nano Lett.
- J. A. Dionne, K. Diest, L. A. Sweatlock, and H. A. Atwater, “Plasmostor: A metal–oxide–Si field effect plasmonic modulator,” Nano Lett.9, 897–902 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- C. Delacour, S. Blaize, P. Grosse, J. M. Fedeli, A. Bruyant, R. Salas-Montiel, G. Lerondel, and A. Chelnokov, “Efficient directional coupling between silicon and copper plasmonic nanoslot waveguides: toward metal-oxide-silicon nanophotonics.” Nano Lett.10, 2922–2926 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nature
- W. L. Barnes, A. Dereux, and T. W. Ebbesen, “Surface plasmon subwavelength optics,” Nature424, 824–830 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- A. Liu, R. Jones, L. Liao, D. Samara-Rubio, D. Rubin, O. Cohen, R. Nicolaescu, and M. Paniccia, “A high-speed silicon optical modulator based on a metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor,” Nature427, 615–618 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Opt. Express
- G. Veronis and S. Fan, “Theoretical investigation of compact couplers between dielectric slab waveguides and two-dimensional metal-dielectric-metal plasmonicwaveguides,” Opt. Express15, 1211–1221 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- S. Zhu, T. Y. Liow, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, “Silicon-based horizontal nanoplasmonic slot waveguides for on-chip integration,” Opt. Express19, 8888–8902 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- A. Hryciw, Y. C. Jun, and M. L. Brongersma, “Plasmon-enhanced emission from optically-doped mos light sources,” Opt. Express17, 185–192 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- H. S. Lee, C. Awada, S. Boutami, F. Charra, L. Douillard, and R. E. de Lamaestre, “Loss mechanisms of surface plasmon polaritons propagating on a smooth polycrystalline Cu surface,” Opt. Express20, 8974–8981 (2012). [CrossRef]
- D. Dai and S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express17, 16646–16653 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Y. Song, J. Wang, Q. Li, M. Yan, and M. Qiu, “Broadband coupler between silicon waveguide and hybrid plasmonic waveguide,” Opt. Express18, 13173–13179 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Opt. Lett.
- L. Chen, J. Shakya, and M. Lipson, “Subwavelength confinement in an integrated metal slot waveguide on silicon,” Opt. Lett.31, 2133–2135 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Rep. Prog. Phys.
- J. Robertson, “High dielectric constant gate oxides for metal oxide si transistors,” Rep. Prog. Phys.69, 327–396 (2006). [CrossRef]
Science
- P. Nagpal, N. C. Lindquist, S.-H. Oh, and D. J. Norris, “Ultrasmooth patterned metals for plasmonics and metamaterials,” Science325, 594–597 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Solid-State Electron.
- V. S. C. Len, R. E. Hurley, N. McCusker, D. W. McNeill, B. M. Armstrong, and H. S. Gamble, “An investigation into the performance of diffusion barrier materials against copper diffusion using metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor structures,” Solid-State Electron.43, 1045–1049 (1999). [CrossRef]
Thin Solid Films
- T. Wang, Y. Cheng, Y. Wang, T. Hsieh, G. Hwang, and C. Chen, “Comparison of characteristics and integration of copper diffusion-barrier dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films498, 36–42 (2006). [CrossRef]
- B. G. Willis and D. V. Lang, “Oxidation mechanism of ionic transport of copper in sio2 dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films467, 284–293 (2004). [CrossRef]
- M. Y. Kwak, D. H. Shin, T. W. Kang, and K. N. Kim, “Characteristics of tin barrier layer against cu diffusion,” Thin Solid Films339, 290–293 (1999). [CrossRef]
- R. J. Gutmann, J. M. Steigerwald, L. You, D. T. Price, J. Neirynck, D. J. Duquette, and S. P. Murarka, “Chemical-mechanical polishing of copper with oxide and polymer interlevel dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films270, 596–600 (1995). [CrossRef]
Other
- E. D. Palik, Handbook of Optical Constants (Academic, 1985).
- V. Jousseaume, M. Assous, A. Zenasni, S. Maitrejean, B. Remiat, P. Leduc, H. Trouve, C. Le Cornec, M. Fayolle, A. Roule, F. Ciaramella, D. Bouchu, T. David, A. Roman, D. Scevola, T. Morel, D. Rebiscoul, G. Prokopowicz, M. Jackman, C. Guedj, D. Louis, M. Gallagher, and G. Passemard, “Cu/ULK (k=2.0) integration for 45 nm node and below using an improved hybrid material with conventional BEOL processing and a late porogen removal,” in “Proceedings of the IEEE 2005 International Interconnect Technology Conference,” 60–62 (2005).
- A. Snyder and J. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman and Hall, 1983).
2012, Lee, Opt. Express
- S. Zhu, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong, “Electro-absorption modulation in horizontal metal-insulator-silicon-insulator-metal nanoplasmonic slot waveguides,” Appl. Phys. Lett.99, 151114–151116 (2011). [CrossRef]
- C. Delacour, S. Blaize, P. Grosse, J. M. Fedeli, A. Bruyant, R. Salas-Montiel, G. Lerondel, and A. Chelnokov, “Efficient directional coupling between silicon and copper plasmonic nanoslot waveguides: toward metal-oxide-silicon nanophotonics.” Nano Lett.10, 2922–2926 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- J. A. Dionne, K. Diest, L. A. Sweatlock, and H. A. Atwater, “Plasmostor: A metal–oxide–Si field effect plasmonic modulator,” Nano Lett.9, 897–902 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- P. Nagpal, N. C. Lindquist, S.-H. Oh, and D. J. Norris, “Ultrasmooth patterned metals for plasmonics and metamaterials,” Science325, 594–597 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- V. J. Logeeswaran, N. P. Kobayashi, M. S. Islam, W. Wu, P. Chaturvedi, N. X. Fang, S. Y. Wang, and R. S. Williams, “Ultrasmooth silver thin films deposited with a germanium nucleation layer,” Nano Lett.9, 178–182 (2009). [CrossRef]
- H. Jin and K. J. Weber, “The effect of LPCVD silicon nitride deposition on the Si-SiO2 interface of oxidized silicon wafers,” J. Electrochem. Soc.154, H5–H8 (2007). [CrossRef]
- C. Leroux, F. Allain, A. Toffoli, G. Ghibaudo, and G. Reimbold, “Automatic statistical full quantum analysis of C-V and I-V characteristics for advanced mos gate stacks,” Microelectron. Eng.84, 2408–2411 (2007). [CrossRef]
- J. Robertson, “High dielectric constant gate oxides for metal oxide si transistors,” Rep. Prog. Phys.69, 327–396 (2006). [CrossRef]
- T. Wang, Y. Cheng, Y. Wang, T. Hsieh, G. Hwang, and C. Chen, “Comparison of characteristics and integration of copper diffusion-barrier dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films498, 36–42 (2006). [CrossRef]
- R. Zia, J. A. Schuller, A. Chandran, and M. L. Brongersma, “Plasmonics: the next chip-scale technology,” Mater. Today9, 20–27 (2006). [CrossRef]
- B. G. Willis and D. V. Lang, “Oxidation mechanism of ionic transport of copper in sio2 dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films467, 284–293 (2004). [CrossRef]
- K.-M. Chang, W.-C. Yang, C.-F. Chen, and B.-F. Hung, “The changing effect of N2/O2 gas flow rate ratios on ultrathin nitrogen-enriched oxynitride gate dielectrics,” J. Electrochem. Soc.151, F118–F122 (2004). [CrossRef]
- A. S. Lee, N. Rajagopalan, M. Le, B. H. Kim, and H. M’Saad, “Development and characterization of a PECVD silicon nitride for damascene applications,” J. Electrochem. Soc.151, F7–F9 (2004). [CrossRef]
- A. Liu, R. Jones, L. Liao, D. Samara-Rubio, D. Rubin, O. Cohen, R. Nicolaescu, and M. Paniccia, “A high-speed silicon optical modulator based on a metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor,” Nature427, 615–618 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- W. L. Barnes, A. Dereux, and T. W. Ebbesen, “Surface plasmon subwavelength optics,” Nature424, 824–830 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- A. A. Istratov and E. R. Weber, “Physics of copper in silicon,” J. Electrochem. Soc.149, G21–G30 (2002). [CrossRef]
- M. L. Green, E. P. Gusev, R. Degraeve, and E. L. Garfunkel, “Ultrathin (<4 nm) SiO2 and Si–O–N gate dielectric layers for silicon microelectronics: understanding the processing, structure, and physical and electrical limits,” J. Electrochem. Soc.90, 2057–2121 (2001).
- R. Rosenberg, D. C. Edelstein, C.-K. Hu, and K. P. Rodbell, “Copper metallization for high performance silicon technology,” Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci.30, 229–262 (2000). [CrossRef]
- M. Y. Kwak, D. H. Shin, T. W. Kang, and K. N. Kim, “Characteristics of tin barrier layer against cu diffusion,” Thin Solid Films339, 290–293 (1999). [CrossRef]
- V. S. C. Len, R. E. Hurley, N. McCusker, D. W. McNeill, B. M. Armstrong, and H. S. Gamble, “An investigation into the performance of diffusion barrier materials against copper diffusion using metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor structures,” Solid-State Electron.43, 1045–1049 (1999). [CrossRef]
- Y. Shi, X. Wang, and T.-P. Ma, “Electrical properties of high-quality ultrathin nitride/oxide stack dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. Electron Dev.46, 362–368 (1999). [CrossRef]
- G. Ghibaudo, G. Pananakakis, R. Kies, E. Vincent, and C. Papadas, “Accelerated dielectric breakdown and wear out standard testing methods and structures for reliability evaluation of thin oxides,” Microelectron. Reliab.39, 597–613 (1999). [CrossRef]
- H. Miyazaki, H. Kojima, and K. Hinode, “Passivation effect of silicon nitride against copper diffusion,” J. Appl. Phys.81, 7746–7750 (1997). [CrossRef]
- R. J. Gutmann, J. M. Steigerwald, L. You, D. T. Price, J. Neirynck, D. J. Duquette, and S. P. Murarka, “Chemical-mechanical polishing of copper with oxide and polymer interlevel dielectrics,” Thin Solid Films270, 596–600 (1995). [CrossRef]
- K. Holloway, P. M. Fryer, C. Cabral, J. M. E. Harper, P. J. Bailey, and K. H. Kelleher, “Tantalum as a diffusion barrier between copper and silicon: Failure mechanism and effect of nitrogen additions,” J. Appl. Phys.71, 5433–5444 (1992). [CrossRef]
- J. D. McBrayer, R. M. Swanson, and T. W. Sigmon, “Diffusion of metals in silicon dioxide,” J. Electrochem. Soc.133, 1242–1246 (1986). [CrossRef]
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