We report results of an ongoing study designed to assess the ability for enhanced detection of recently buried land-mines and/or improvised explosive devices (IED) devices using passive long-wave infrared (LWIR) polarimetric imaging. Polarimetric results are presented for a series of field tests conducted at various locations and soil types. Well-calibrated Stokes images, S0, S1, S2, and the degree-of-linear-polarization (DoLP) are recorded for different line-of-sight (LOS) slant paths at varying distances. Results span a three-year time period in which three different LWIR polarimetric camera systems are used. All three polarimetric imaging platforms used a spinning-achromatic-retarder (SAR) design capable of achieving high polarimetric frame rates and good radiometric throughput without the loss of spatial resolution inherent in other optical designs. Receiver-operating-characteristic (ROC) analysis and a standardized contrast parameter are used to compare detectability between conventional LWIR thermal and polarimetric imagery. Results suggest improved detectability, regardless of geographic location or soil type.

© 2012 OSA

1. S. Reed, Y. Petillot, and J. Bell, “Model-based approach to the detection and classification of mines in sidescan sonar,” Appl. Opt.43(2), 237–246 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. C. Bohling, K. Hohmann, D. Scheel, D. Nodop, C. Bauer, J. Burgmeier, W. Schade, and G. Holl, “Real-time detection of mines and explosives by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, 2006 and 2006 Quantum Electronics and Laser Science (CLEO/QELS. 2006).
3. C. Bohling, D. Scheel, K. Hohmann, W. Schade, M. Reuter, and G. Holl, “Fiber-optic laser sensor for mine detection and verification,” Appl. Opt.45(16), 3817–3825 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. J. A. Shaw, N. L. Seldomridge, D. L. Dunkle, P. W. Nugent, L. H. Spangler, J. J. Bromenshenk, C. B. Henderson, J. H. Churnside, and J. J. Wilson, “Polarization lidar measurements of honey bees in flight for locating land mines,” Opt. Express13(15), 5853–5863 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. T. H. Chua and C. L. Chen, “Fiber polarimetric stress sensors,” Appl. Opt.28(15), 3158–3165 (1989). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. J. S. Tyo, B. M. Ratliff, J. K. Boger, W. T. Black, D. L. Bowers, and M. P. Fetrow, “The effects of thermal equilibrium and contrast in LWIR polarimetric images,” Opt. Express15(23), 15161–15167 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. R. Harr and M. Polcha, “Preliminary investigation of the reststrahlen phenomenology at low-grazing angles,” Proc. SPIE5794, 978–987 (2005). [CrossRef]
8. Y. Wang, L. Li, and Y. Sun, “Adaptive imaging for forward-looking ground penetrating radar,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.41(3), 922–936 (2005). [CrossRef]
9. J. Kositsky, R. Cosgrove, and C. Amazeen, “Results from a forward-looking GPR mine detection system,” Proc. SPIE4742, 206–217 (2002). [CrossRef]
10. T. W. Du Bosq, J. M. Lopez-Alonso, and G. D. Boreman, “Millimeter wave imaging system for land mine detection,” Appl. Opt.45(22), 5686–5692 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. K. Stone, J. Keller, K. Ho, M. Busch, and P. D. Gader, “On the registration of FLGPR and IR data for a forward-looking landmine detection system and its use in eliminating FLGPR false alarms,” Proc. SPIE6953, 695314, 695314-12 (2008). [CrossRef]
12. E. Winter, M. Miller, C. Simi, and A. Hill, “Mine detection experiments using hyper-spectral sensors,” Proc. SPIE5415, 1035–1041 (2004). [CrossRef]
13. E. M. Winter and M. S. Silvious, “Spectral method to detect surface mines,” Proc. SPIE6953, 69530R, 69530R-9 (2008). [CrossRef]
14. A. C. Goldberg, T. Fischer, and Z. Derzko, “Application of dual-band infrared focal plane arrays to tactical and strategic military problems,” Proc. SPIE4820, 500–514 (2003). [CrossRef]
15. G. Koh, E. Winter, and M. Schatten, “Rainfall degradation of LWIR disturbed soil signature,” Proc. SPIE6217, 62170G, 62170G-8 (2006). [CrossRef]
16. W. Wolfe and G. Zissis, The Infrared Handbook, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Office of Naval Research, Dept. of Navy, Washington, DC (1978).
17. G. Zissis, ed., The Infrared & Electro-Optical System Handbook, Sources of Radiation, (SPIE Optical Press, 1993), Vol. 1.
18. J. Sergio, Z. Wang, J. Tyo, and B. Hoover, “Target Detection with Partial Mueller Polarimeters,” in Frontiers in Optics(FIOS), OSA Technical Digest (Optical Society of America, 2008), paper FThO7.
19. J. S. Tyo, B. M. Ratliff, J. K. Boger, W. T. Black, D. L. Bowers, and M. P. Fetrow, “The effects of thermal equilibrium and contrast in LWIR polarimetric images,” Opt. Express15(23), 15161–15167 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. K. P. Gurton and R. Dahmani, “Effect of surface roughness and complex indices of refraction on polarized thermal emission,” Appl. Opt.44(26), 5361–5367 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. E. Hecht and A. Zajac, Optics (Addison-Wesley, 1979), Vol. 22, pp. 4223–4227.
22. M. Kudenov, L. Pezzaniti, and G. Gerhart, “Microbolometer-infrared imaging Stokes polarimeter,” Opt. Eng.48(6), 063201 (2009). [CrossRef]
23. C. S. L. Chun, D. L. Fleming, and E. J. Torok, “Polarization sensitive, thermal imaging,” in Automatic Object Recognition IV, F. A. Sadjadi, ed., Proc. SPIE 2234, 275–286 (1994).
24. J. L. Pezzaniti and D. B. Chenault, “A division of aperture MWIR imaging polarimeter,” Proc. SPIE5888, 58880V, 58880V-12 (2005). [CrossRef]
25. J. L. Pezzaniti and R. A. Chipman, “Imaging polarimeters for optical metrology,” in Polarimetry: Radar, Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, and X-Ray, R. A. Chipman and J. W. Morris, eds., Proc. SPIE 1317, 280–294 (1990).
26. J. L. Pezzaniti and R. A. Chipman, “Mueller matrix imaging polarimetry,” Opt. Eng.34(6), 1558–1568 (1995). [CrossRef]
27. J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt.45(22), 5453–5469 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. T. Fawcett, “An introduction to ROC analysis,” Pattern Recognit. Lett.27(8), 861–874 (2006). [CrossRef]
29. A. P. Bradley, “The use of the area under the ROC curve in the evaluation of machine learning algorithms,” Pattern Recognit.30(7), 1145–1159 (1997). [CrossRef]
30. J. K. Gohagan, E. L. Spitznagel, M. M. McCrate, and T. B. Frank, “ROC analysis of mammography and palpation for breast screening,” Invest. Radiol.19(6), 587–592 (1984). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. W. Dillon and M. Goldstein, Multivariate Analysis Methods and Applications (John Wiley & Sons, 1984).
32. M. Felton, K. P. Gurton, J. L. Pezzaniti, D. B. Chenault, and L. E. Roth, “Measured comparison of the crossover periods for mid- and long-wave IR (MWIR and LWIR) polarimetric and conventional thermal imagery,” Opt. Express18(15), 15704–15713 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Appl. Opt.

• S. Reed, Y. Petillot, and J. Bell, “Model-based approach to the detection and classification of mines in sidescan sonar,” Appl. Opt.43(2), 237–246 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• C. Bohling, D. Scheel, K. Hohmann, W. Schade, M. Reuter, and G. Holl, “Fiber-optic laser sensor for mine detection and verification,” Appl. Opt.45(16), 3817–3825 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• T. H. Chua and C. L. Chen, “Fiber polarimetric stress sensors,” Appl. Opt.28(15), 3158–3165 (1989). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• T. W. Du Bosq, J. M. Lopez-Alonso, and G. D. Boreman, “Millimeter wave imaging system for land mine detection,” Appl. Opt.45(22), 5686–5692 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• K. P. Gurton and R. Dahmani, “Effect of surface roughness and complex indices of refraction on polarized thermal emission,” Appl. Opt.44(26), 5361–5367 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt.45(22), 5453–5469 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.

• Y. Wang, L. Li, and Y. Sun, “Adaptive imaging for forward-looking ground penetrating radar,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.41(3), 922–936 (2005). [CrossRef]

Invest. Radiol.

• J. K. Gohagan, E. L. Spitznagel, M. M. McCrate, and T. B. Frank, “ROC analysis of mammography and palpation for breast screening,” Invest. Radiol.19(6), 587–592 (1984). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Eng.

• M. Kudenov, L. Pezzaniti, and G. Gerhart, “Microbolometer-infrared imaging Stokes polarimeter,” Opt. Eng.48(6), 063201 (2009). [CrossRef]
• J. L. Pezzaniti and R. A. Chipman, “Mueller matrix imaging polarimetry,” Opt. Eng.34(6), 1558–1568 (1995). [CrossRef]

Opt. Express

• J. S. Tyo, B. M. Ratliff, J. K. Boger, W. T. Black, D. L. Bowers, and M. P. Fetrow, “The effects of thermal equilibrium and contrast in LWIR polarimetric images,” Opt. Express15(23), 15161–15167 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• M. Felton, K. P. Gurton, J. L. Pezzaniti, D. B. Chenault, and L. E. Roth, “Measured comparison of the crossover periods for mid- and long-wave IR (MWIR and LWIR) polarimetric and conventional thermal imagery,” Opt. Express18(15), 15704–15713 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. S. Tyo, B. M. Ratliff, J. K. Boger, W. T. Black, D. L. Bowers, and M. P. Fetrow, “The effects of thermal equilibrium and contrast in LWIR polarimetric images,” Opt. Express15(23), 15161–15167 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• J. A. Shaw, N. L. Seldomridge, D. L. Dunkle, P. W. Nugent, L. H. Spangler, J. J. Bromenshenk, C. B. Henderson, J. H. Churnside, and J. J. Wilson, “Polarization lidar measurements of honey bees in flight for locating land mines,” Opt. Express13(15), 5853–5863 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Pattern Recognit.

• A. P. Bradley, “The use of the area under the ROC curve in the evaluation of machine learning algorithms,” Pattern Recognit.30(7), 1145–1159 (1997). [CrossRef]

Pattern Recognit. Lett.

• T. Fawcett, “An introduction to ROC analysis,” Pattern Recognit. Lett.27(8), 861–874 (2006). [CrossRef]

Proc. SPIE

• J. L. Pezzaniti and D. B. Chenault, “A division of aperture MWIR imaging polarimeter,” Proc. SPIE5888, 58880V, 58880V-12 (2005). [CrossRef]
• R. Harr and M. Polcha, “Preliminary investigation of the reststrahlen phenomenology at low-grazing angles,” Proc. SPIE5794, 978–987 (2005). [CrossRef]
• J. Kositsky, R. Cosgrove, and C. Amazeen, “Results from a forward-looking GPR mine detection system,” Proc. SPIE4742, 206–217 (2002). [CrossRef]
• K. Stone, J. Keller, K. Ho, M. Busch, and P. D. Gader, “On the registration of FLGPR and IR data for a forward-looking landmine detection system and its use in eliminating FLGPR false alarms,” Proc. SPIE6953, 695314, 695314-12 (2008). [CrossRef]
• E. Winter, M. Miller, C. Simi, and A. Hill, “Mine detection experiments using hyper-spectral sensors,” Proc. SPIE5415, 1035–1041 (2004). [CrossRef]
• E. M. Winter and M. S. Silvious, “Spectral method to detect surface mines,” Proc. SPIE6953, 69530R, 69530R-9 (2008). [CrossRef]
• A. C. Goldberg, T. Fischer, and Z. Derzko, “Application of dual-band infrared focal plane arrays to tactical and strategic military problems,” Proc. SPIE4820, 500–514 (2003). [CrossRef]
• G. Koh, E. Winter, and M. Schatten, “Rainfall degradation of LWIR disturbed soil signature,” Proc. SPIE6217, 62170G, 62170G-8 (2006). [CrossRef]

Other

• W. Wolfe and G. Zissis, The Infrared Handbook, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Office of Naval Research, Dept. of Navy, Washington, DC (1978).
• G. Zissis, ed., The Infrared & Electro-Optical System Handbook, Sources of Radiation, (SPIE Optical Press, 1993), Vol. 1.
• J. Sergio, Z. Wang, J. Tyo, and B. Hoover, “Target Detection with Partial Mueller Polarimeters,” in Frontiers in Optics(FIOS), OSA Technical Digest (Optical Society of America, 2008), paper FThO7.
• C. Bohling, K. Hohmann, D. Scheel, D. Nodop, C. Bauer, J. Burgmeier, W. Schade, and G. Holl, “Real-time detection of mines and explosives by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, 2006 and 2006 Quantum Electronics and Laser Science (CLEO/QELS. 2006).
• J. L. Pezzaniti and R. A. Chipman, “Imaging polarimeters for optical metrology,” in Polarimetry: Radar, Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, and X-Ray, R. A. Chipman and J. W. Morris, eds., Proc. SPIE 1317, 280–294 (1990).
• C. S. L. Chun, D. L. Fleming, and E. J. Torok, “Polarization sensitive, thermal imaging,” in Automatic Object Recognition IV, F. A. Sadjadi, ed., Proc. SPIE 2234, 275–286 (1994).
• E. Hecht and A. Zajac, Optics (Addison-Wesley, 1979), Vol. 22, pp. 4223–4227.
• W. Dillon and M. Goldstein, Multivariate Analysis Methods and Applications (John Wiley & Sons, 1984).

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