We demonstrate single-mode uniform and parabolically tapered three-dimensional waveguides fabricated via direct-write lithography in diffusion-based photopolymers. Modulation of the writing power is shown to compensate Beer-Lambert absorption in the single-photon initiator and to provide precise control of modal tapers. A laminated sample preparation is introduced to enable full 3D characterization of these modal tapers without the need for sample polishing which is difficult for this class of polymer. The accuracy and repeatability of this modal characterization is shown to allow precise measurement of propagation loss from single samples. These testing procedures are used to demonstrate single-mode waveguides with 0.147 dB/cm excess propagation loss and symmetrical tapers up to 1:2.5 using 1.5 microwatts of continuous write power.

© 2012 OSA

1. K. M. Davis, K. Miura, N. Sugimoto, and K. Hirao, “Writing waveguides in glass with a femtosecond laser,” Opt. Lett.21(21), 1729–1731 (1996). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. S. Sowa, W. Watanabe, T. Tamaki, J. Nishii, and K. Itoh, “Symmetric waveguides in poly(methyl methacrylate) fabricated by femtosecond laser pulses,” Opt. Express14(1), 291–297 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. J. Ishihara, K. Komatsu, O. Sugihara, and T. Kaino, “Fabrication of three-dimensional calixarene polymer waveguides using two-photon assisted polymerization,” Appl. Phys. Lett.90(3), 033511 (2007). [CrossRef]
4. K. Dorkenoo, O. Crégut, L. Mager, F. Gillot, C. Carre, and A. Fort, “Quasi-solitonic behavior of self-written waveguides created by photopolymerization,” Opt. Lett.27(20), 1782–1784 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. K. L. Deng, T. Gorczyca, B. K. Lee, H. Xia, R. Guida, and T. Karras, “Self-aligned single-mode polymer waveguide interconnections for efficient chip-to-chip optical coupling,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron.12(5), 923–930 (2006). [CrossRef]
6. O. Sugihara, H. Tsuchie, H. Endo, N. Okamoto, T. Yamashita, M. Kagami, and T. Kaino, “Light-induced self-written polymeric optical waveguides for single-mode propagation and for optical interconnections,” IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett.16(3), 804–806 (2004). [CrossRef]
7. R. S. Fan and R. B. Hooker, “Tapered polymer single-mode waveguides for mode transformation,” J. Lightwave Technol.17(3), 466–474 (1999). [CrossRef]
8. R. Inaba, M. Kato, M. Sagawa, and H. Akahoshi, “Two-dimensional mode size transformation by \delta n-controlled polymer waveguides,” J. Lightwave Technol.16(4), 620–624 (1998). [CrossRef]
9. S. J. Frisken, “Light-induced optical waveguide uptapers,” Opt. Lett.18(13), 1035–1037 (1993). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. C. J. Cogswell and C. J. R. Sheppard, “Confocal differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy: including a theoretical analysis of conventional and confocal DIC imaging,” J. Microsc.165(1), 81–101 (1992). [CrossRef]
11. S. V. King, A. Libertun, R. Piestun, C. J. Cogswell, and C. Preza, “Quantitative phase microscopy through differential interference imaging,” J. Biomed. Opt.13(2), 024020 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. A. C. Sullivan and R. R. McLeod, “Tomographic reconstruction of weak, replicated index structures embedded in a volume,” Opt. Express15(21), 14202–14212 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. M. R. Ayres and R. R. McLeod, “Scanning transmission microscopy using a position-sensitive detector,” Appl. Opt.45(33), 8410–8418 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. T. Wilson, J. N. Gannaway, and C. J. R. Sheppard, “Optical fibre profiling using a scanning optical microscope,” Opt. Quantum Electron.12(4), 341–345 (1980). [CrossRef]
15. W. J. Gambogi, A. M. Weber, and T. J. Trout, “Advances and applications of Dupont holographic photopolymers,” Proc. SPIE2043, 2–13 (1994). [CrossRef]
16. K. Curtis, L. Dhar, A. J. Hill, W. L. Wilson, and M. R. Ayres, Holographic Data Storage: From Theory to Practical Systems (John Wiley & Sons, 2010).
17. A. C. Sullivan, M. W. Grabowski, and R. R. McLeod, “Three-dimensional direct-write lithography into photopolymer,” Appl. Opt.46(3), 295–301 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. B. Cai, K. Komatsu, O. Sugihara, M. Kagami, M. Tsuchimori, T. Matsui, and T. Kaino, “A three-dimensional polymeric optical circuit fabrication using a femtosecond laser-assisted self written waveguide technique,” Appl. Phys. Lett.92(25), 253302 (2008). [CrossRef]
19. D. A. Waidman, R. T. Ingwall, P. K. Dhal, M. G. Homer, E. S. Koib, H.-Y. S. Li, R. A. Minns, and H. G. Schild, “Cationic ring-opening photopolymerization methods for volume hologram recording,” Proc. SPIE2689, 127–141 (1996). [CrossRef]
20. L. Dhar, A. Hale, H. E. Katz, M. L. Schilling, M. G. Schnoes, and F. C. Schilling, “Recording media that exhibit high dynamic range for digital holographic data storage,” Opt. Lett.24(7), 487–489 (1999). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. M. Ams, G. D. Marshall, D. J. Spence, and M. J. Withford, “Slit beam shaping method for femtosecond laser direct-write fabrication of symmetric waveguides in bulk glasses,” Opt. Express13(15), 5676–5681 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. DataRay Incorporated, WinCamDTM Series CCD/CMOS Beam Imagers User Manual, Rev. 1007b, page 42, DataRay Incorporated, Bella Vista CA (2010).
23. A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman and Hall, 1983), pp. 337–342.
24. K. A. Berchtold, T. M. Lovestead, and C. N. Bowman, “Coupling chain length dependent and reaction diffusion controlled termination in the free radical polymerization of multifunctional(meth)acrylates,” Macromolecules35(21), 7968–7975 (2002). [CrossRef]

Appl. Opt.

• M. R. Ayres and R. R. McLeod, “Scanning transmission microscopy using a position-sensitive detector,” Appl. Opt.45(33), 8410–8418 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. C. Sullivan, M. W. Grabowski, and R. R. McLeod, “Three-dimensional direct-write lithography into photopolymer,” Appl. Opt.46(3), 295–301 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Appl. Phys. Lett.

• B. Cai, K. Komatsu, O. Sugihara, M. Kagami, M. Tsuchimori, T. Matsui, and T. Kaino, “A three-dimensional polymeric optical circuit fabrication using a femtosecond laser-assisted self written waveguide technique,” Appl. Phys. Lett.92(25), 253302 (2008). [CrossRef]
• J. Ishihara, K. Komatsu, O. Sugihara, and T. Kaino, “Fabrication of three-dimensional calixarene polymer waveguides using two-photon assisted polymerization,” Appl. Phys. Lett.90(3), 033511 (2007). [CrossRef]

IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron.

• K. L. Deng, T. Gorczyca, B. K. Lee, H. Xia, R. Guida, and T. Karras, “Self-aligned single-mode polymer waveguide interconnections for efficient chip-to-chip optical coupling,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron.12(5), 923–930 (2006). [CrossRef]

IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett.

• O. Sugihara, H. Tsuchie, H. Endo, N. Okamoto, T. Yamashita, M. Kagami, and T. Kaino, “Light-induced self-written polymeric optical waveguides for single-mode propagation and for optical interconnections,” IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett.16(3), 804–806 (2004). [CrossRef]

J. Biomed. Opt.

• S. V. King, A. Libertun, R. Piestun, C. J. Cogswell, and C. Preza, “Quantitative phase microscopy through differential interference imaging,” J. Biomed. Opt.13(2), 024020 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Lightwave Technol.

• R. S. Fan and R. B. Hooker, “Tapered polymer single-mode waveguides for mode transformation,” J. Lightwave Technol.17(3), 466–474 (1999). [CrossRef]
• R. Inaba, M. Kato, M. Sagawa, and H. Akahoshi, “Two-dimensional mode size transformation by \delta n-controlled polymer waveguides,” J. Lightwave Technol.16(4), 620–624 (1998). [CrossRef]

J. Microsc.

• C. J. Cogswell and C. J. R. Sheppard, “Confocal differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy: including a theoretical analysis of conventional and confocal DIC imaging,” J. Microsc.165(1), 81–101 (1992). [CrossRef]

Macromolecules

• K. A. Berchtold, T. M. Lovestead, and C. N. Bowman, “Coupling chain length dependent and reaction diffusion controlled termination in the free radical polymerization of multifunctional(meth)acrylates,” Macromolecules35(21), 7968–7975 (2002). [CrossRef]

Opt. Express

• M. Ams, G. D. Marshall, D. J. Spence, and M. J. Withford, “Slit beam shaping method for femtosecond laser direct-write fabrication of symmetric waveguides in bulk glasses,” Opt. Express13(15), 5676–5681 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. Sowa, W. Watanabe, T. Tamaki, J. Nishii, and K. Itoh, “Symmetric waveguides in poly(methyl methacrylate) fabricated by femtosecond laser pulses,” Opt. Express14(1), 291–297 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. C. Sullivan and R. R. McLeod, “Tomographic reconstruction of weak, replicated index structures embedded in a volume,” Opt. Express15(21), 14202–14212 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Lett.

• K. M. Davis, K. Miura, N. Sugimoto, and K. Hirao, “Writing waveguides in glass with a femtosecond laser,” Opt. Lett.21(21), 1729–1731 (1996). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• K. Dorkenoo, O. Crégut, L. Mager, F. Gillot, C. Carre, and A. Fort, “Quasi-solitonic behavior of self-written waveguides created by photopolymerization,” Opt. Lett.27(20), 1782–1784 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• S. J. Frisken, “Light-induced optical waveguide uptapers,” Opt. Lett.18(13), 1035–1037 (1993). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• L. Dhar, A. Hale, H. E. Katz, M. L. Schilling, M. G. Schnoes, and F. C. Schilling, “Recording media that exhibit high dynamic range for digital holographic data storage,” Opt. Lett.24(7), 487–489 (1999). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Quantum Electron.

• T. Wilson, J. N. Gannaway, and C. J. R. Sheppard, “Optical fibre profiling using a scanning optical microscope,” Opt. Quantum Electron.12(4), 341–345 (1980). [CrossRef]

Proc. SPIE

• W. J. Gambogi, A. M. Weber, and T. J. Trout, “Advances and applications of Dupont holographic photopolymers,” Proc. SPIE2043, 2–13 (1994). [CrossRef]
• D. A. Waidman, R. T. Ingwall, P. K. Dhal, M. G. Homer, E. S. Koib, H.-Y. S. Li, R. A. Minns, and H. G. Schild, “Cationic ring-opening photopolymerization methods for volume hologram recording,” Proc. SPIE2689, 127–141 (1996). [CrossRef]

Other

• K. Curtis, L. Dhar, A. J. Hill, W. L. Wilson, and M. R. Ayres, Holographic Data Storage: From Theory to Practical Systems (John Wiley & Sons, 2010).
• DataRay Incorporated, WinCamDTM Series CCD/CMOS Beam Imagers User Manual, Rev. 1007b, page 42, DataRay Incorporated, Bella Vista CA (2010).
• A. W. Snyder and J. D. Love, Optical Waveguide Theory (Chapman and Hall, 1983), pp. 337–342.

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