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High-temperature HgTe/CdTe multiple-quantum-well lasers
Optics Express, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp. 137-142 (1998)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.2.000137
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Abstract
While most previous studies of Hg-based mid-IR lasers have focused on either bulk Hg1-x Cd x Te alloys or thick (> 100 Å) Hg1-x Cd x Te quantum wells with relatively large x, we show that much thinner (20–30 Å) HgTe binary wells may be engineered to suppress both Auger recombination and intervalence free carrier absorption. On the basis of detailed numerical simulations, we predict 4.3 μm cw emission at temperatures up to 220 K for optical pumping and 105 K for diode operation. In pulsed mode, we expect maximum lasing temperatures more than 100 K higher than any prior Hg-based mid-IR result.
© Optical Society of America
[Optical Society of America ]
While Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te mid-IR lasers were first demonstrated over 30 years ago
1
and a large number of experimental investigations have been carried out over the
past decade,
2–7
in recent years the level of performance has failed to keep pace with the rapid
advance of interband III-V mid-IR lasers.
8, 9
Although the emission of 1.3 W per facet peak power has
been reported for pulsed optical pumping at 88 K,
6
to our knowledge the highest operating temperature
(T
max) observed to date for a wavelength ≤ 3.0
¼m has been 154 K. There have been several attempts to
enhance the performance through the use of a Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te/Hg1-y
Cd
y
Te multiple-quantum-well (MQW) active region
3,6,7
rather than a Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te alloy double heterostructure. However, only incremental improvements in
T
max have been observed, and it has been suggested on
theoretical grounds that at longer wavelengths (e.g.,
4.5 μm) the optimum active region would be an alloy.
10
J. M. Arias, M. Zandian, R. Zucca, and J. Singh, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S255 (1993). [CrossRef]
H. K. Choi, S. J. Eglash, and G. W. Turner, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2474 (1994). [CrossRef]
C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef]
J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, J.-L. Pautrat, and H. Mariette, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S286 (1993). [CrossRef]
J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef]
J. Singh and R. Zucca, J. Appl. Phys. 72, 2043 (1992). [CrossRef]
In this letter, we point out that much higher Trmmax
may be
attainable if one substitutes thin HgTe quantum wells for the thicker
Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te wells with relatively large x that have been employed in all
of the previous MQW investigations except one theoretical work which considered a
thin-well superlattice with strong kz
dispersion
11
. This is because the high free carrier absorption
12
and Auger recombination
7, 13
losses which limited the performance of the earlier
devices should be strongly suppressed in properly designed HgTe MQWs. A similar strategy
recently led to room temperature operation of optically pumped type-II antimonide lasers
emitting out to 4.5 μm.
9, 14
Following a description of the active QW designs, we
will present predicted thresholds, output powers, and T
max
for Hg-based alloy and MQW lasers.
M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef]
J. A. Mroczkowski and D. A. Nelson, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 2041 (1983). [CrossRef]
J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef]
V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef]
C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef]
J. I. Malin, C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, J. F. Pinto, C.-H. Lin, P. C. Chang, S. J. Murry, and S.-S. Pei, Electron. Lett. 32, 1593 (1996). [CrossRef]
Fig. 1. In-plane bandstructure at 77 K for a MQW consisting of 150 Å
Hg0.65Cd0.35Te wells and 100 Å
Hg0.15Cd0.85Te barriers grown along the (100)
direction.
Fig. 2. In-plane bandstructure at 150 K for a MQW consisting of 24 Å-thick
HgTe wells and 60 Å Hg0.1Cd0.9Te barriers grown
along the (211) direction. The dashed line shows the heavy-hole dispersion for a
bulk HgCdTe alloy with the same bandgap.
Consider first the MQW band diagram in Fig. 1, which corresponds to [100]-oriented
150-Å-thick Hg0.65Cd0.35Te quantum wells surrounded by
100-Å Hg0.15Cd0.85Te barrier layers. This structure is
somewhat typical of previous Hg-based QW laser designs. In order to be consistent with
several recent characterizations, we have taken the HgTe/CdTe valence band offset to be
500 meV.
15–17
Note that while the electrons have a 2D density of states near the conduction
band minimum, the heavy-hole subband splittings are much smaller than the thermal
energies of interest. Hence the average effective mass and DOS near the valence band
maximum are essentially the same as in the 3D alloy. Thus with regard to Auger-1 (CCCH)
non-radiative recombination losses, the situation is analogous to that for the alloy, in
which the large mass for holes combined with the small mass for electrons favors a rapid
recombination rate, since both energy and momentum are easily conserved. The onset of
continuum valence states at ≈ -250 meV may similarly be expected to yield a
short Auger-7 (CHHL) lifetime comparable to that in the alloy.
13
Furthermore, the strong H → L intervalence processes which lead to
very large free hole absorption cross sections in Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te alloys (at ħω ≈
Eg
)
11
are expected to produce equally strong internal losses in the MQW of Figure 1. The high internal losses present in most Hg-based
mid-IR lasers
4
require a great deal of gain to achieve transparency. Low losses have been
observed only in MQW structures with a small number of active wells,
6
for which the available gain is correspondingly low. In either case,
T
max is limited by an inability to produce enough gain
when the threshold carrier density, and hence free carrier loss, becomes too high with
increasing T.
Z. Yang, Z. Yu, Y. Lansari, S. Hwang, J. W. Cook Jr., and J. F. Schetzina, Phys. Rev. B 49, 8096 (1994). [CrossRef]
V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef]
M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef]
A. Ravid, A. Sher, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 73, 7102 (1993). [CrossRef]
We now compare with the in-plane dispersion relations shown in Fig. 2 for a [211]-oriented MQW with much thinner wells (24
Å) composed of binary HgTe, which are surrounded by 60-Å-thick
Hg0.1Cd0.9Te barriers. Here the confinement-induced shift of
the L1 and H2 subbands to much lower energies results in an extended region of
≈ 50 meV over which holes near the H1 maximum have a light in-plane mass
(≈ 0.06m
0 at
k
∥ = 0) combined with a 2D DOS. Besides
decreasing the threshold carrier concentration and enhancing the differential gain, this
configuration introduces an activation energy which suppresses Auger-1 recombination processes
18
(since now only holes occupying the heavier-mass region at lower energies can
conserve both momentum and energy). Equally important is that the energy gap (278 meV)
is now strongly detuned from any resonance coupling H1 to a lower valence subband or to
the continuum. This not only suppresses Auger-7 non-radiative recombination,
11, 19
but it also frustrates the intervalence contribution
to the free carrier absorption loss at the lasing photon energy. Rather than attempting
to calculate the suppression factors a priori as was done in Ref. 11, for our purposes here we will conservatively estimate that the
Auger coefficient is smaller than that in bulk alloy with the same energy gap by a
factor related to the reduced occupation of heavy-mass hole states,
18
which we will limit to a maximum of 4 (a suppression factor of ≈ 4 has
been confirmed experimentally for narrow-gap III-V MQWs with a similar valence band structure
9
). We further assume that the net free carrier absorption cross section for
electrons and holes has been reduced to 10-16 cm2 (comparable to
the value in bulk CdTe
20
). Although the thinness of the quantum wells (d
w
= 24 Å) in the MQW of Fig. 2 will produce a modest additional broadening of the gain
spectrum due to interface roughness, this effect will be smaller than in
InAs/Ga1-x
In
x
Sb/InAs/AlSb structures with well thicknesses down to 17 Å which have
lased up to ambient temperatures.
9,13
H. P. Hjalmarson and S. R. Kurtz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 949 (1996). [CrossRef]
M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef]
C. H. Grein, P. M. Young, and H. Ehrenreich, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 1940 (1994). [CrossRef]
M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef]
H. P. Hjalmarson and S. R. Kurtz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 949 (1996). [CrossRef]
C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef]
C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef]
V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef]
To simulate the performance of Hg-based mid-IR lasers, we first calculate the TE-mode
optical gain, recombination rate, and electronic heat capacity as a function of carrier
density and temperature.
21
These dependences are input in tabular form to the rate equations for the carrier
density and temperature, which are coupled to the photon-propagation and
lattice-temperature equations.
22
Calculations have been performed in the limits of pulsed pumping with low duty
cycle, for which lattice heating is negligible, and cw operation. Although it will be
shown elsewhere that similar performance enhancements may be expected for Hg-based
vertical-cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) (recently demonstrated experimentally
by Pautrat et al.
23
) here we assume an edge-emitting geometry. The optical waveguide employs the CdTe
substrate as a lower optical cladding layer, in conjunction with a top cladding of
Hg0.1Cd0.9Te. For pulsed operation, the sample may be mounted
epi-side up with a top cladding as thin as 1.5 μm. On the
other hand, for cw operation the best results are obtained for epi-side-down mounting.
In that somewhat thicker top cladding of 2.5 μm is required
to optically isolate the active region from the metallized top thermal contact.
J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, F. J. Bartoli, and L. R. Ram-Mohan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 757 (1995). [CrossRef]
I. Vurgaftman and J. R. Meyer, IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum. Electron. 3, 75 (1997). [CrossRef]
J. L. Pautrat, E. Hadji, J. Bleuse, and N. Magnea, J. Electron. Mater. 26, 667 (1997). [CrossRef]
Fig. 3. Calculated cw (solid) and pulsed (dashed curves) output power per facet for an
optically pumped bulk Hg0.7Cd0.3Te alloy emitting at 4.3
μm as a function of pump intensity at several
representative temperatures. The cavity length of 1 mm and the stripe width of
200 μm are the same in Fig. 3–6.
Fig. 4. Calculated cw (solid curves) and pulsed (dashed curves) output power per facet
for an optically pumped quantum-well structure of Fig. 2 emitting at 4.3 μm as
a function of pump intensity at several representative temperatures.
To test the consistency of our modeling with experimental data from the literature and
also to provide a comparison for the MQW results presented below, we first treat the
case of a double heterostructure laser with a bulk Hg0.7Cd0.3Te
alloy active region that is 0.5 μm thick. Optical pumping at
1.06 μm is assumed for a stripe width of 200
μm, cavity length of 1 mm, and emission wavelength of
4.3 μm. Bulk values are employed for the Auger recombination coefficient
7,13
(γ3 ≈ 5 ×
1026 cm6/s, independent of T) and
free-carrier absorption cross section (8 × 10-16 cm-2
at T = 90 K).
12
Results of the simulations for both pulsed and cw optical pumping are shown in Fig. 3. The maximum pulsed operating temperature of 105 K is
quite consistent with the best experimental result of 90 K for this wavelength range.
5
The simulation for a wider-gap alloy emitting at λ = 3.1
μm predicts T
max = 185 K,
which is again only slightly higher than the best reported experimental results
4,6,7
for active regions consisting of both alloys and thick
quantum wells (which we expect to have comparable Auger coefficients and free carrier
absorption cross sections).
J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef]
V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef]
J. A. Mroczkowski and D. A. Nelson, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 2041 (1983). [CrossRef]
A. Ravid, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 74, 15 (1993). [CrossRef]
A. Ravid, A. Sher, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 73, 7102 (1993). [CrossRef]
J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef]
We next consider optically pumped lasers employing the thin-quantum-well design discussed
in connection with Fig. 2, for which we incorporate the specified suppressions of
the Auger coefficient and free carrier absorption cross section. We find that the
optimum trade-off between low lasing threshold and adequate net gain is obtained when
the number of quantum wells N is limited,
6
in our case to N ≈ 10. In order to assure that most
of the 1.06 μm pump beam is absorbed, we place 350
Å-thick high-index spacer layers of Hg0.55Cd0.45Te
between each QW unit consisting of one 24 Å HgTe quantum well surrounded by
two 60 Å Hg0.1Cd0.9Te barriers. These barriers are
thick enough to provide strong quantum confinement yet thin enough to allow
electron-hole pairs generated in the spacer layers to tunnel into the HgTe wells on a
picosecond time scale (hole tunneling will occur primarily through light-hole states).
We emphasize that both the top cladding layer and the substrate are effectively
transparent to the pump beam. A finite-difference solution to the optical wave equation
yields that the optical confinement factor for the active-well-plus-barrier units (but
not counting the spacer layers) is ≈ 13%.
For the same stripe width and cavity length as in Fig. 3, the simulation of the optically-pumped MQW device
emitting at the same wavelength yields the L-I characteristics illustrated in Fig. 4, where results are shown for both cw (solid) and pulsed
(dashed) operation at several temperatures. Note that the maximum operating temperatures
of 225 K for cw and 260 K for pulsed exceed those calculated for the alloy active region
by more than 100 K. We also predict that this device should be capable of producing more
than 1 W of cw output power at thermoelectric (TE)-cooler temperatures, and has a
threshold pump intensity as low as 2.5 kW/cm2 at 200 K. Analogous QW devices
emitting at λ ≈ 3 μm should operate up
to temperatures well above 300 K in pulsed mode. Simulations with different input
parameters confirm that both the longer Auger lifetimes and the suppressed intervalence
absorption losses are critical to these performance improvements.
Although optical pumping may be acceptable for a restricted range of applications, a more
practical device technology is the diode laser, in which electrons and holes are
electrically injected into the active quantum wells. In the diode simulations, we have
assumed that the top and bottom optical claddings are doped n and
p-type, respectively, to an average concentration of 3 ×
1017 cm-3. For cw operation, we again assume epi-side-down
mounting. In this case the internal spacer layers have been eliminated in order to avoid
injection nonuniformities, especially of the holes. The quantum wells are taken to have
the same well and barrier thicknesses as in the optically pumped structure discussed
above. Since the optimal number of quantum wells is again found to be on the order of
N = 10, we increase the optical confinement by placing doped,
0.2-μm-thick Hg0.55Cd0.45Te
high-index spacer layers between each cladding layer and the active quantum wells. The
resulting optical loss in the cladding and high-index regions is calculated to be
comparable to that in the active region.
Pulsed L-I characteristics for the QW diode are shown in Fig. 5. The maximum operating temperature is calculated to be 190
K, at which the laser turns on at a threshold current density of 9 kA/cm2.
Although the diode should be capable of producing pulsed, multi-mode output powers
exceeding 1 W, quite high injection currents are required to reach that range. Results
for cw operation of the same device are shown in Fig. 6. Here the threshold current density is 600
A/cm2 at the T
max of 105 K. Nearly 100 mW of cw
power should be achievable when operation is at 77 K.
We finally emphasize that the Auger and free-carrier absorption suppression factors
employed here should be viewed as rough lower bounds on what may be attainable. One
stategy which would yield an even more favorable valence band structure is to
compressively strain the HgTe quantum wells by growing on a Cd1-x
Zn
x
Te substrate or buffer layer with 0.10 ≤ x
≤ 0.15, and then employing tensile-strained Cd1-y
Zn
y
Te barrier layers (with y > x) to
compensate the compressive strain in the wells. This would push the L1 band down even
further with respect to H1, and provide an even greater range of energies over which the
in-plane mass of the H1 holes is quite light.
Fig. 5. Calculated pulsed output power per facet for an electrically pumped quantum-well
structure (Fig. 2) emitting at 4.3 μm as
a function of injected current density at several temperatures.
Fig. 6. Calculated cw output power per facet for an electrically pumped quantum-well
structure (Fig. 2) emitting at 4.3 μm as
a function of injected current density at several temperatures.
To summarize, we have theoretically demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating Hg-based
mid-IR lasers that operate to temperatures more than 100 K beyond any experimental
results reported to date. We showed that whereas the properties of most previously
studied structures consisting of thick Hg1-x
Cd
x
Te QWs with relatively large x are in many ways quite similar to
those of bulk alloys, the optimum MQW structure contains thin binary HgTe wells coupled
with barrier layers that maximize the band offsets. This should result in the
significant suppression of both Auger-1 and Auger-7 nonradiative recombination as well
as internal absorption losses due to intervalence transitions. Our simulations show that
operation at TE-cooler temperatures should be attainable for cw optically-pumped lasers
and pulsed diode lasers at wavelengths as long as 4.5 μm.
Performance levels exceeding those indicated in Figs. 4–6 should be attainable at shorter mid-IR
wavelengths, e.g.,, in the 3–3.5
μm range.
We thank L. R. Ram-Mohan and Quantum Semiconductor Algorithms for use of the
transfer-matrix and finite-element band-structure formalisms. This work was supported by
the Office of Naval Research and was performed while one of the authors (I.V.) held a
National Research Council-NRL Research Associateship.
References
I. Melngailis and A. J. Strauss, Appl. Phys. Lett. 8, 179 (1966). | |
J. M. Arias, M. Zandian, R. Zucca, and J. Singh, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S255 (1993). [CrossRef] | |
J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, J.-L. Pautrat, and H. Mariette, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S286 (1993). [CrossRef] | |
A. Ravid, A. Sher, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 73, 7102 (1993). [CrossRef] | |
A. Ravid, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 74, 15 (1993). [CrossRef] | |
H. Q. Le, A. Sanchez, J. M. Arias, M. Zandian, R. R. Zucca, and Y.-Z. Liu, Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser. 144, 24 (1995). | |
J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef] | |
H. K. Choi, S. J. Eglash, and G. W. Turner, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2474 (1994). [CrossRef] | |
C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef] | |
J. Singh and R. Zucca, J. Appl. Phys. 72, 2043 (1992). [CrossRef] | |
M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef] | |
J. A. Mroczkowski and D. A. Nelson, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 2041 (1983). [CrossRef] | |
V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef] | |
J. I. Malin, C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, J. F. Pinto, C.-H. Lin, P. C. Chang, S. J. Murry, and S.-S. Pei, Electron. Lett. 32, 1593 (1996). [CrossRef] | |
Z. Yang, Z. Yu, Y. Lansari, S. Hwang, J. W. Cook Jr., and J. F. Schetzina, Phys. Rev. B 49, 8096 (1994). [CrossRef] | |
J. B. Choi, K. H. Yoo, J. W. Han, T. W. Kang, J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, G. Karczewski, J. K. Furdyna, and J. P. Faurie, Phys. Rev. B 49, 11060 (1994). [CrossRef] | |
M. von Truchsess, V. Latussek, F. Goschenhofer, C. R. Becker, G. Landwehr, E. Batke, R. Sizmann, and P. Helgesen, Phys. Rev. B 51, 17618 (1995). [CrossRef] | |
H. P. Hjalmarson and S. R. Kurtz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 949 (1996). [CrossRef] | |
C. H. Grein, P. M. Young, and H. Ehrenreich, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 1940 (1994). [CrossRef] | |
B. M. Vul, V. M. Sal’man, and V. A. Chapnin, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. 4, 67 (1970) [Sov. Phys. Semicond. 4, 52 (1970)]. | |
J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, F. J. Bartoli, and L. R. Ram-Mohan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 757 (1995). [CrossRef] | |
I. Vurgaftman and J. R. Meyer, IEEE J. Sel. Topics Quantum. Electron. 3, 75 (1997). [CrossRef] | |
J. L. Pautrat, E. Hadji, J. Bleuse, and N. Magnea, J. Electron. Mater. 26, 667 (1997). [CrossRef] |
OCIS Codes
(140.2020) Lasers and laser optics : Diode lasers
(140.5960) Lasers and laser optics : Semiconductor lasers
(160.6000) Materials : Semiconductor materials
ToC Category:
Focus Issue: Quantum well laser design
History
Original Manuscript: October 8, 1997
Published: February 16, 1998
Citation
Igor Vurgaftman and Jerry Meyer, "High-temperature HgTe/CdTe multiple-quantum-well lasers," Opt. Express 2, 137-142 (1998)
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-2-4-137
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References
- I. Melngailis and A. J. Strauss, Appl. Phys. Lett. 8, 179 (1966).
- J. M. Arias, M. Zandian, R. Zucca, and J. Singh, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S255 (1993). [CrossRef]
- J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, J.-L. Pautrat, and H. Mariette, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, S286 (1993). [CrossRef]
- A. Ravid, A. Sher, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 73, 7102 (1993). [CrossRef]
- A. Ravid, G. Cinader, and A. Zussman, J. Appl. Phys. 74, 15 (1993). [CrossRef]
- H.Q. Le, A. Sanchez, J.M. Arias, M. Zandian, R. R. Zucca, and Y.-Z.Liu, Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser. 144, 24 (1995).
- J. Bonnet-Gamard, J. Bleuse, N. Magnea, and J. L. Pautrat, J. Cryst. Growth 159, 613 (1996). [CrossRef]
- H. K. Choi, S. J. Eglash, and G. W. Turner, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 2474 (1994). [CrossRef]
- C. L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, I. Vurgaftman, C.-H. Lin, S. J. Murry, D. Zhang, and S.-S. Pei, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 9, 734 (1997). [CrossRef]
- J. Singh and R. Zucca, J. Appl. Phys. 72, 2043 (1992). [CrossRef]
- M. E. Flatte, C. H. Grein, H. Ehrenreich, R. H. Miles, and H. Cruz, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4552 (1995). [CrossRef]
- J. A. Mroczkowski and D. A. Nelson, J. Appl. Phys. 54, 2041 (1983). [CrossRef]
- V. C. Lopes, A. J. Syllaios, and M. C. Chen, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 8, 824 (1993). [CrossRef]
- J.I. Malin, C.L. Felix, J. R. Meyer, C. A.Hoffman, J.F.Pinto, C.-H.Lin, P. C.Chang, S. J. Murry, and S.-S. Pei, Electron. Lett. 32, 1593 (1996). [CrossRef]
- Z. Yang, Z. Yu, Y. Lansari, S. Hwang, J. W. Cook, Jr., and J. F. Schetzina, Phys. Rev. B 49, 8096 (1994). [CrossRef]
- J. B. Choi, K. H. Yoo, J. W. Han, T. W. Kang, J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, G. Karczewski, J. K. Furdyna, and J. P. Faurie, Phys. Rev. B 49, 11060 (1994). [CrossRef]
- M. von Truchsess, V. Latussek, F. Goschenhofer, C. R. Becker, G. Landwehr, E. Batke, R. Sizmann, and P. Helgesen, Phys. Rev. B 51, 17618 (1995). [CrossRef]
- H. P. Hjalmarson and S. R. Kurtz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 949 (1996). [CrossRef]
- C. H. Grein, P. M. Young, and H. Ehrenreich, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 1940 (1994). [CrossRef]
- B. M. Vul, V. M. Sal'man, and V. A. Chapnin, Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn. 4, 67 (1970) [Sov. Phys. Semicond. 4, 52 (1970)].
- J. R. Meyer, C. A. Hoffman, F. J. Bartoli, and L. R. Ram-Mohan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 757 (1995). [CrossRef]
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