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Optics Express

  • Editor: C. Martijn de Sterke
  • Vol. 20, Iss. 3 — Jan. 30, 2012
  • pp: 2124–2135

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Engineering broadband and anisotropic photoluminescence emission from rare earth doped tellurite thin film photonic crystals

Pao T. Lin, Michiel Vanhoutte, Neil S. Patel, Vivek Singh, Juejun Hu, Yan Cai, Rodolfo Camacho-Aguilera, Jurgen Michel, Lionel C. Kimerling, and Anu Agarwal  »View Author Affiliations


Optics Express, Vol. 20, Issue 3, pp. 2124-2135 (2012)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.002124


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Abstract

Broadband and anisotropic light emission from rare-earth doped tellurite thin films is demonstrated using Er3+-TeO2 photonic crystals (PhCs). By adjusting the PhC parameters, photoluminescent light can be efficiently coupled into vertical surface emission or lateral waveguide propagation modes. Because of the flexibility of light projection direction, Er3+-TeO2 is a potential broadband light source for integration with three-dimensional photonic circuits and on-chip biochemical sensors.

© 2012 OSA

1. Introduction

Rare earth doped thin films are promising light sources for nanophotonic circuits and biochemical sensors because of their extended emission spectral range and compatibility with monolithic integration [1

M. Miritello, R. Lo Savio, F. Iacona, G. Franzò, A. Irrera, A. M. Piro, C. Bongiorno, and F. Priolo, “Efficient luminescence and energy transfer in erbium silicate thin films,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.) 19(12), 1582–1588 (2007). [CrossRef]

–4

M. T. Carlson, A. Khan, and H. H. Richardson, “Local temperature determination of optically excited nanoparticles and nanodots,” Nano Lett. 11(3), 1061–1069 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

]. Among these active optical glasses, erbium doped TeO2 (Er3+-TeO2) thin films have recently attracted a lot of attention because of their extremely high efficiency of photoluminescence (PL) emission. Tellurite glass is known for its high erbium solubility, which significantly increases the concentration of PL emission centers [5

S. Shen, A. Jha, X. Liu, M. Naftaly, K. Bindra, H. J. Bookey, and A. K. Kar, “Tellurite glasses for broadband amplifiers and integrated optics,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 85(6), 1391–1395 (2002). [CrossRef]

,6

J. S. Wang, E. M. Vogel, and E. Snitzer, “Tellurite glass: a new candidate for fiber devices,” Opt. Mater. 3(3), 187–203 (1994). [CrossRef]

]. Due to its low maximum phonon energy and high refractive index, Er3+-TeO2 exhibits significantly higher emission rate compared to Erbium doped silicates and silicon dioxides [7

I. Jlassi, H. Elhouichet, and M. Ferid, “Thermal and optical properties of tellurite glasses doped erbium,” J. Mater. Sci. 46(3), 806–812 (2011). [CrossRef]

,8

S. Shen, B. Richards, and A. Jha, “Enhancement in pump inversion efficiency at 980 nm in Er3+, Er3+/Eu3++ and Er3+/Ce3+ doped tellurite glass fibers,” Opt. Express 14(12), 5050–5054 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

]. Furthermore, tellurite has a broad optical transmission window, which covers a broadband spectrum from visible to mid-IR up to 4.5 µm. Due to these superior optical properties, Er3+-TeO2 based near IR and mid IR fiber lasers and amplifiers have been developed recently [9

M. R. Oermann, H. Ebendorff-Heidepriem, Y. Li, T.-C. Foo, and T. M. Monro, “Index matching between passive and active tellurite glasses for use in microstructured fiber lasers: erbium doped lanthanum-tellurite glass,” Opt. Express 17(18), 15578–15584 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

,10

A. Mori, “Tellurite-based fibers and their applications to optical communication networks,” J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn. 116(1358), 1040–1051 (2008). [CrossRef]

]. To create on-chip light source integrated photonic circuits, tellurite thin films are great candidates because they are compatible with monolithic Si-CMOS processes [11

M. Pollnau and S. D. Jackson, “Mid-infrared fiber lasers solid-state mid-infrared laser sources,” Top. Appl. Phys. 89, 219–253 (2003).

,12

G. S. Murugan and Y. Ohishi, “TeO2–BaO–SrO–Nb2O5 glasses: a new glass system for waveguide devices applications,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 341(1-3), 86–92 (2004). [CrossRef]

]. Furthermore, they can be deposited at room temperature and require no post-annealing [13

F. D’Amore, M. Di Giulio, S. M. Pietralunga, A. Zappettini, L. Nasi, V. Rigato, and M. Martinelli, “Sputtered stoichiometric teo2 glass films: dispersion of linear and nonlinear optical properties,” J. Appl. Phys. 94(3), 1654 (2003). [CrossRef]

,14

N. Dewan, V. Gupta, K. Sreenivas, and R. S. Katiyar, “Growth of amorphous TeOx (2 ≤ x ≤ 3) thin film by radio frequency sputtering,” J. Appl. Phys. 101(8), 084910 (2007). [CrossRef]

]. For these reasons, Er3+-TeO2 thin films are promising broadband light source for chembio-photonic platforms and optical communication systems [15

X. J. Wang, G. Yuan, H. Isshiki, T. Kimura, and Z. J. Zhou, “Photoluminescence enhancement and high gain amplification of ErxY2−xSiO5 waveguide,” Appl. Phys. (Berl.) 108, 013506 (2010).

,16

D. Zhao, S.-J. Seo, and B.-S. Bae, “Full-color mesophase silicate thin film phosphors incorporated with rare earth ions and photosensitizers,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.) 19(21), 3473–3479 (2007). [CrossRef]

].

Despite these promising advantages, introducing flexible angular emission and efficient extraction of broadband PL light remain the most difficult barriers to be overcome in order to achieve an on-chip Er3+-TeO2 light source. We already know from studies of light emitting diodes (LEDs) that the efficiency of light extraction determines the performance of thin film light [17

M. Boroditsky, T. F. Krauss, R. Coccioli, R. Vrijen, R. Bhat, and E. Yablonovitch, “Light extraction from optically pumped light-emitting diode by thin-slab photonic crystals,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 75(8), 1036 (1999). [CrossRef]

]. Previous work by B. Cluzel and M. Zelsmann et al also demonstrated that the PL from silicon-on-insulator can be enhanced by surface patterning [18

B. Cluzel, N. Pauc, V. Calvo, T. Charvolin, and E. Hadji, “Nanobox array for silicon-on-insulator luminescence enhancement at room temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88(13), 133120 (2006). [CrossRef]

–20

M. Zelsmann, E. Picard, T. Charvolin, E. Hadji, M. Heitzmann, B. Dal’zotto, M. E. Nier, C. Seassal, P. Rojo-Romeo, and X. Letartre, “Seventy-fold enhancement of light extraction from a defectless photonic crystal made on silicon-on-insulator,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 83(13), 2542 (2003). [CrossRef]

]. Compared to an LED and silicon, an on-chip light source is more difficult because of the need for tunable angular emission and to direct the broadband light into waveguides [21

K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, Y. R. Do, and Y. D. Huh, “Structural effect of a two-dimensional SiO2 photonic crystal layer on extraction efficiency in sputter-deposited Y2O3:Eu3+ thin-film phosphors,” J. Appl. Phys. 102(1), 013509 (2007). [CrossRef]

,22

K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, H. K. Park, Y.-C. Kim, and Y. R. Do, “The variation of the enhanced photoluminescence efficiency of Y2O3:Eu3+ films with the thickness to the photonic crystal layer,” Opt. Express 16(8), 5689–5696 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

]. For in-plane photonic circuits, the PL light must be confined inside the film layer rather than being emitted from the film surface [23

T. Liu and R. Panepucci, “Confined waveguide modes in slot photonic crystal slab,” Opt. Express 15(7), 4304–4309 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

–25

C. E. Chryssou, F. Di Pasquale, and C. W. Pitt, “Er3+-doped channel optical waveguide amplifiers for WDM systems: a comparison of tellurite, alumina and Al/P silicate materials,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 6(1), 114–121 (2000). [CrossRef]

]. On the other hand, surface PL emission is needed for microfluidic devices, since the fluidic channels are placed beyond or below the Er3+-TeO2 layers. Hence, structures that can enhance the anisotropy of PL emission patterns are key to the development of a successful on-chip PL light source.

Besides the challenges in device design for anisotropic PL coupling, difficulties in patterning Er3+-TeO2 thin films with submicron resolution also hinder its application as an on-chip light source [26

G. N. Conti, S. Berneschi, M. Bettinelli, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, and G. C. Righini, “Rare-earth doped tungsten tellurite glasses and waveguides: fabrication and characterization,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 345, 343–348 (2004). [CrossRef]

]. Due to the low volatility of tellurite, the use of an etching process for patterning results in undesired columnar structures [27

K. T. Vu and S. J. Madden, “Reactive ion etching of tellurite and chalcogenide waveguides using hydrogen, methane, and argon,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 29(1), 011023 (2011). [CrossRef]

,28

R. D. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th ed. (CRC, 2007).

]. Other techniques, such as direct laser writing and ion exchange, have been explored [29

P. Nandi, G. Jose, C. Jayakrishnan, S. Debbarma, K. Chalapathi, K. Alti, A. K. Dharmadhikari, J. A. Dharmadhikari, and D. Mathur, “Femtosecond laser written channel waveguides in tellurite glass,” Opt. Express 14(25), 12145–12150 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

–31

S. Sakida, T. Nanba, and Y. Miura, “Optical properties of Er3+-doped tungsten tellurite glass waveguides by Ag+–Na+ ion-exchange,” Opt. Mater. 30(4), 586–593 (2007). [CrossRef]

]; however, these are associated with micro-explosion and surface damage, and are accompanied by a degraded pattern resolution [32

S. K. Sundaram, C. B. Schaffer, and E. Mazur, “Microexplosions in tellurite glasses,” Appl. Phys., A Mater. Sci. Process. 76(3), 379–384 (2003). [CrossRef]

,33

Y. Tokuda, M. Saito, M. Takahashi, K. Yamada, W. Watanabe, K. Itoh, and T. Yoko, “Waveguide formation in niobium tellurite glases by pico- and femtosecond laser pulses,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 326–327, 472–475 (2003). [CrossRef]

]. Recently, Vu and Madden demonstrated an Er3+-TeO2 rib waveguide amplifier: though the amplifier results in a net gain of 2.8 dB /cm, the waveguide has surface roughness in the order of tens of nanometers [34

K. Vu and S. Madden, “Tellurium dioxide erbium doped planar rib waveguide amplifiers with net gain and 2.8 dB/cm internal gain,” Opt. Express 18(18), 19192–19200 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

]. The rough surface that is typically produced during etching processes causes significant light loss and prevents its application in nanophotonic devices [35

S. M. Pietralunga, M. Lanata, M. Ferè, D. Piccinin, G. Cusmai, M. Torregiani, and M. Martinelli, “High-contrast waveguides in sputtered pure TeO2 glass thin films,” Opt. Express 16(26), 21662–21670 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

,36

G. N. Conti, V. K. Tikhomirov, M. Bettinelli, S. Berneschi, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, A. B. Seddon, and G. C. Righini, “Characterization of ion-exchanged waveguides in tungsten tellurite and zinc tellurite Er3+-doped glasses,” Opt. Eng. 42(10), 2805 (2003). [CrossRef]

]. Collectively, these observations point to the need for alternative fabrication processes that can generate patterns with sub-micron resolution and minimized surface roughness in order to permit use of Er3+-TeO2 as an efficient on-chip light source [37

V. Reboud, N. Kehagias, M. Zelsmann, C. Schuster, M. Fink, F. Reuther, G. Gruetzner, and C. M. Sotomayor Torres, “photoluminescence enhancement in nanoimprinted photonic crystals and coupled surface plasmons,” Opt. Express 15(12), 7190–7195 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

].

In this study we have designed and fabricated two dimensional Er3+-TeO2 PhCs to accomplish broadband PL emission and enhance its anisotropy. PhCs arrays with different structures are examined to optimize the efficiency of PL extraction [38

A. C. Arsenault, T. J. Clark, G. von Freymann, L. Cademartiri, R. Sapienza, J. Bertolotti, E. Vekris, S. Wong, V. Kitaev, I. Manners, R. Z. Wang, S. John, D. Wiersma, and G. A. Ozin, “From colour fingerprinting to the control of photoluminescence in elastic photonic crystals,” Nat. Mater. 5(3), 179–184 (2006). [CrossRef]

]. The PhC structures are written by a dual-beam focused ion beam (FIB) which generates patterns with smooth surfaces. Nano-lithography using FIB can easily reach a resolution of hundred nanometers. A confocal microscope with spectrometer is then used to capture the broadband PL signals from individual PhC arrays. The emission enhancement factor and spectral dependent anisotropic extraction are analyzed to uncover the interaction between PL emission and PhC structures. Simulation by calculation of two dimensional finite difference time domain (FDTD) is used to explain the experimentally observed enhancement of PL anisotropy.

2. Experimental sections

2.1 Erbium-doped tellurite thin film growth

Er3+-TeO2 thin films were deposited on a Si wafer by an AJA sputtering system. The sputtering rate was recorded by the quartz crystal thickness monitor. Er targets and TeO2 targets were cosputtered at growth rates of 0.02 nm/s and 1.15 nm/s respectively. The flow rate of Ar was 10 sccm and for O2 was 2 sccm. The power used for sputtering was 80 W for the Er target and 60 W for the TeO2 target. The substrate was maintained at room temperature during deposition. The deposited film thickness was characterized by profilometer (Veeco Dektak) and a 1µm Er3+-TeO2 film was obtained.

2.2 Patterning of photonic crystals on Er3+-TeO2 thin films

PhCs are patterned on Er-TeO2 thin films by dual beams focused ion beam milling (Zeiss NVision 40). The ion beam current was 1.5 nA and patterning time was 60 s for each PhC array. The patterned photonic lattices range from 300 nm to 1 μm. Each PhC array has an area of 20 µm x 20 µm.

2.3 Photoluminescence measurements of Er3+-TeO2 thin films

The measurements of the PL spectra and images are performed by Micro-PL mapping system (HORIBA Jobin Yvon). The excitation source is 100 mW 532 nm solid state laser (Laser Quantum). The detector is a single channel indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) detector with liquid N2 cooling. PL mapping is achieved by scanning the laser in the sample plane, where the sample is moved by a high resolution piezo electric stage. PL spectrum at each point of the sample is collected.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Morphology characterization of Er3+-TeO2 PhCs

Figure 1 shows the SEM surface image of the patterned Er3+-TeO2 PhCs. The insert documents a cross sectional image captured with a tilt angle of 36°. In the SEM images, the black areas are air holes milled by the ion beam, whereas the light gray background is the remaining Er3+-TeO2 thin film. The PhC lattice constant a is defined by the patterning periodicity, which is 700 nm in Fig. 1. This PhC array has a square symmetry and consists of air columns of 200 nm diameter. Highly smooth vertical edges are observed in the cross sectional image which shows that roughness is minimized through use of ion beam milling. In addition, the milled holes are regularly distributed without any misalignments or distortion. Unlike dry etching or wet etching, no grass effect appears in the milled surface which indicates that the FIB technique is well suited for the fabrication of Er3+-TeO2 nanophotonic devices.

Fig. 1 SEM surface image of the patterned Er3+-TeO2 thin film PhCs. The insert (upper right) is a cross sectional image captured at a tilt angle of 36°. Photonic lattice constant a = 700 nm is labeled by the red bar.

3.2 Spectral characterization of the emission from Er3+-TeO2 PhCs

Figure 2(a) shows the PL spectrum resulting from excitation of the Er3+-TeO2 thin film by a 532 nm laser. A strong PL emission with full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 60 nm is observed between 1475 nm and 1625 nm, with the center wavelength at 1530 nm, which corresponds to the Er3+ 4I13/2 → 4I15/2 transition. To study the effect of varying PhC structures on PL emission, the spatial profiles of PL signals were recorded. PL mappings at λ = 1500 nm, 1530 nm and 1560 nm are displayed in Fig. 2(b). Note that λ = 1530 nm is the center of the PL spectrum, whereas λ = 1500 nm and λ = 1560 nm are wavelengths at which the PL intensities reach half of the maximum. The periodicities of the 2 x 5 PhC array starting from the top right going counterclockwise are 360 nm, 490 nm, 630 nm, 800 nm and 950 nm, 1050 nm, 1180 nm, 1330 nm, 1430 nm, 1670 nm, respectively. The variation of PL signal strength corresponds to the change in intensity of PL surface emission. Higher intensity in the PL mapping indicate that more PL is extracted from the Er3+-TeO2 layer into the external medium which is air in this case. In contrast, decreased PL intensity indicates that more PL light is confined inside the Er3+-TeO2 layer. The PL that remains in the film is defined as the planar waveguide propagation mode.

Fig. 2 (a) PL spectrum obtained when the Er3+-TeO2 thin film is excited by a 532 nm laser. (b) PL mapping at λ = 1500 nm, 1530 nm and 1560 nm. The periodicities of the 2 x 5 PhC array starting from the top right going counterclockwise are 360 nm, 490 nm, 630 nm, 800 nm and 950 nm, 1050 nm, 1180 nm, 1330 nm, 1430 nm, 1670 nm, respectively. Below the PL mapping is the scale bar at different λ.

To better interpret this variation in PL, we used FS, the enhancement factor for surface PL emission, to analyze the dependence of PL intensity on the PhC periodicity a. FS is defined as follows:
Fs= Is− I sb I sb
where Is is the PL intensity measured at the surface of the PhCs, and Isb is the surface intensity from the non-patterned area. A plot of FS at different a and λ is shown in Fig. 3 . At PL spectrum center, λ = 1530 nm, destructive surface PL is observed at a = 360 nm, while a strongly enhanced surface PL is observed between a = 800 nm and a = 1330 nm. Plots of FS vs. a reveal that, for all PL wavelengths, FS factors are negative when a is smaller than 600 nm, indicating that PhCs with a = 360 nm can efficiently direct the broadband PL light into waveguide propagation mode. On the other hand, PhCs with a = 800 nm, a = 950 nm, and a = 1050 nm have significantly high FS > 40% in the entire PL spectral range. Hence, PhCs from a = 800 nm to a = 1050 nm can project most PL light into the air. As shown in Fig. 3, FS remains positive in the entire PL spectrum when periodicity a is larger than 600 nm which indicates that surface emission is the preferential mode when the PL light interacts with wider photonic lattices. Therefore the PL mapping results and the plots of FS vs. a demonstrate that by tuning the periodicity a, we can readily select the desired PL emission modes which also determine the PL projection directions. Depending on the layout of the integrated system, Er3+-TeO2 PhCs can supply broadband light into in-plane optical circuits such as waveguides, as well as out-of-plane sensors such as monolithic detectors or microfluidic channels. The flexibility of vertical and in-plane emission enables the design of three dimensional photonic circuits. Hence, these Er3+-TeO2 PhCs arrays can potentially serve as broadband on-chip light sources with adjustable emission directions.

Fig. 3 PL surface enhancement factor FS measured at different PhC periodicities a and PL wavelengths λ.

From Fig. 3 we see that PL at shorter wavelength, λ = 1500 nm, has a similar mapping result to PL at λ = 1530 nm. We determine that the PL intensity in the absence of PhCs is 90 counts at λ = 1500 nm. For PhCs with the smallest periodicity, a = 360 nm, a strongly destructive surface PL of 55 counts is observed, while a slightly destructive PL of 80 counts appears at a = 490 nm. When a = 630 nm, no effect on PL is found. As a increases to 800 nm, a highly enhanced surface PL of 135 counts is obtained; this highly bright surface PL continues at a = 950 nm and a = 1050 nm. Though the surface PL remains enhanced from a = 1180 to a = 1670 nm, its intensity gradually decreases from 120 accounts to 100 accounts. From Fig. 3, FS increases from −39% at a = 360 nm to 50% at a = 800 nm. We note also that the waveguide propagation mode is preferred when FS is negative. Hence, PL remains inside the thin film layer at a = 360 nm. As a increases, PL emission is redirected from in-plane to out-of-plane, which indicates a mode transition from waveguide propagation to surface emission. At a = 800 nm, the PL extraction ratio is increased by 50% and has reached its maximum. As a increases beyond 800 nm, FS gradually decreases indicating that the PL light becomes more evenly distributed between surface emission and waveguide propagation. The plot of FS vs. a shows that PhCs have less effect on PL emission when periodicity a is > 1600 nm.

We also investigated the broadband properties of surface PL enhancement by mapping PL intensities at longer wavelengths, λ = 1560 nm, as shown in Fig. 2(b). The relationship between the enhancement factor FS and the PhC periodicity a is plotted in Fig. 3. Though the preferential mode is independent of the wavelength of the PL, the response of the enhancement factor FS, varies as the wavelengths of the PL shift when periodicity a increases. At λ = 1500 nm, FS reaches its maximum at a = 800 nm; then as a increases from 800 nm to 1670 nm, FS linearly decreases from 50% to 11%. As the wavelength of PL shifts to λ = 1530 nm, the periodicity of maximum FS moves to a = 1180 nm, after which FS monotonically decreases from 48% to 21% at a = 1670 nm. In other words, a 30 nm red shift of λ causes a shift in the optimized periodicity from a = 800 nm to a = 1180 nm, is significant change of a by 380 nm. Unlike the plots of FS vs. a at λ = 1500 nm and λ = 1530 nm, where only a single optimized a exists, the optimized periodicity degenerates to a = 800 nm and a = 1330 nm when λ = 1560 nm. The two maximum FS at λ = 1560 nm are 58% and 56%, which are 10% higher than the maximum FS obtained at shorter PL wavelengths. The plot of FS vs. a also shows that PhCs which have periodicities a = 800 nm, a = 950 nm, and a = 1050 nm are the optimal structures for broadband PL surface emission. Though a PhC with a = 1333 nm has an extremely high FS factor at λ = 1560 nm, its relatively low FS at shorter PL wavelengths prohibits its application for broadband PL surface coupling.

In a similar vein, PhCs with periodicities a that are smaller than 600 nm have very consistent response along the entire PL spectrum. Figure 3 documents that PhCs with a = 360 nm have FS factors of – 40% at all PL wavelengths. Therefore, such a PhC can well confine the broadband PL light within the Er3+-TeO2 layer without any light leaking into the external media. For applications of integrated circuits, such PhCs can be used as a broadband on-chip coupler, which redirects the PL light into nearby optical waveguides or micro-resonators.

3.3 FDTD simulation of the emission intensities of Er3+-TeO2 PhCs and the propagation modes

Two dimensional FDTD simulations were performed to investigate the switching mechanism between the PL surface emission mode and waveguide propagation mode. The structure in the calculation is shown in Fig. 4 and the follwoing is the detailed simulation conditions: The middle layer (From y = 0 to y = 1) is a 1 µm PhC Er3+-TeO2 layer, with a refractive index of 2.3. The botton layer is the Si and the top layer is air. The PhC array is composed of twenty photonic crytsal lattices with periodicities a. A broadband dipole source from λ = 1.45 µm to 1.65 µm is placed in the center photonic lattice at x = 0 and y = 0.5. One sensor box is placed around the PhC array in order to calculate the fluxes propagating through the top, bottom, left and right interfaces. Perfectly matched layer is used as the boundary condition. In order to achieve highly accurate modeling, the size of the calculation step is chosen to be 20 nm. The duration of simulation is set to 5000 fs to ensure that light can pass through the sensor even when resonance occurs inside the PhCs.

Fig. 4 The simulated patterns of PL emission at λ = 1530 nm (a) without PhC structure, (b) with a = 800 nm PhC array, and (c) with a = 300 nm PhC array. The film thickness is 1 um (From y = 0 to y = 1). The green arrows and the blue arrows indicate the surface emission and the waveguide propagation, respectively.

The PL emission patterns for different structures at λ = 1530 nm are displayed in Figs. 4(a)–4(c). Figure 4(a) shows the PL intensity profile of a film when there is no PhC array. The PL light from the center dipole is uniformly emitted in horizontal and vertical directions, and the PL fluxes passing through the top sensor and the side sensor are of the same order of magnitude. For the surface emission, a small cone of PL radiation is observed, whereas for the side emission, the PL propagates laterally inside the Er3+-TeO2 layer and the light wave bounces back and forth between two interfaces: air to Er3+-TeO2 film and Er3+-TeO2 film to Si wafer. For comparison, the PL intensity profile from a PhC array at a = 800 nm is shown in Fig. 4(b). A strong PL signal is observed at the top film surface where the PL light is projected upward to the air. Clearly, the PhC induces a highly anisotropic emission pattern; the surface PL is almost four orders of magnitude higher than lateral PL. The PL profile illustrates that the PhC array significantly enhances the extraction of the surface PL. On the other hand, Fig. 4(c) shows that the PhC with a = 300 nm has a highly confined waveguide mode; the PL intensity detected from the side sensor is four times higher than the intensity read by the top sensor. This indicates that most PL light remains in the Er3+-TeO2 film layer since surface PL extraction is strongly suppressed. As PhC periodicities decrease from a = 800 nm to a = 300 nm, the side PL signal is enhanced by four orders of magnitude. Figures 4(a)–4(c) document that the PL emission patterns from Er3+-TeO2 thin films can be readily manipulated by optimizing the structure of the PhCs, and switching between the surface emission mode and waveguide propagation mode is achieved by adjusting the PhC periodicity a.

Enhancement factors F at different PhC periodicities a are calculated and drawn in Fig. 5 in order to investigate the dependence of anisotropic PL emission on the PhC structures. In the equations below, FS and FW are the PL enhancement factors for the surface emission mode and the waveguide propagation mode respectively. They are defined as follows:

Fig. 5 Enhancement factors FS and FW simulated at different PhC periodicities a.
Fs= Is− I sb I sb
Fw= Iw− I wb I wb

Is is the PL intensity above the air – Er3+-TeO2 interface, where the light is extracted from the emission layer; Iw is the lateral PL signal observed at the edges of the Er3+-TeO2 film and refers to the PL in the waveguide planar mode. Both Is and Iw are measured in the presence of a PhC array. Isb and Iwb are the backgrounds PL signals for the two modes when no PhC structure exists. We find that surface PL enhancement factors FS are positive when periodicity a is larger than 500 nm. A maximum FS is observed for PhC with a = 800 nm while the waveguide PL enhancement factor FW is negative when a is larger than 400 nm. Together the positive FS and negative FW indicate that surface emission is dominant, and the PL waveguide confinement is depressed. Therefore, the PhCs structure can efficiently extract PL light from Er3+-TeO2 layers into the air. In contrast, FS becomes negative when a<500 nm while FW becomes positive, and sharply increases from −50% to + 50% when a approaches 350 nm. The change of both factors, FW (negative to positive) and FS (positive to negative), reveals that most PL light is confined inside the Er3+-TeO2 layer appears in a waveguide propagation mode.

Note that the plot of F vs. a drawn from results of the simulation shows the same tendency as for the F vs. a plot shown in Fig. 3 (derived from experimental data). Both plots reveal that the critical PhC periodicity aC triggers a mode transition. When a > aC, surface PL emission is preferred, and as the value of a decreases, FS also gradually decreases while FW remains negative. Once a reaches aC, FS turns negative and FW increases rapidly. This explains why the PL mapping shown in Fig. 2(b) exhibits destructive surface PL at a = 360 nm. Another tendency seen in the F vs. a plot is the existence of maximum FS. Instead of monotonically increasing with the periodicity a, FS reaches its highest value, 1.3, at a = 800 nm then decreases. These results correspond to the plot of measured FS vs. a in Fig. 3 in which the maximum FS value is observed between a = 800 nm and a = 1100 nm. Hence, the F vs. a relationship derived from FDTD simulation agrees well with the FS vs. a variation observed experimentally. This varies that the anisotropic PL emission from Er3+-TeO2 PhCs can be accurately predicted by the simulation. Also, by modulating the percentage of PhC structures we can easily enhance the PL extraction ratio and determine the PL projection patterns.

To explain the anisotropic emission, the photonic band structure of Er3+-TeO2 PhCs is calculated and shown in Fig. 6 . From the diagram we find two photonic band gaps. The first gap is from 0.25f to 0.3f, where f is the normalized frequency equal to a/c Hz. The second gap is from 0.48f to 0.55f with a narrow band in the gap center. For a PhC with periodicity a = 800 nm, the second gap covers from λ = 1455 nm to 1667 nm. Clearly this band gap overlaps with the PL emission spectrum of Er3+-TeO2, and it prohibits the in-plane light propagation of emitted PL. Under this circumstance, only the surface emission mode exists and the enhancement factor of surface extraction FS reaches its maximum at a = 800 as shown in Fig. 5. On the other hand, for PhCs at a = 300 nm PL at wavelength λ = 1530 nm has a normalized frequency f = 0.2. Since there is no band gap below f = 0.25, the PL light can easily couple into the thin film layer as the waveguide propagation mode. It explains the rapid increase of FW when the periodicity a approaches 300 nm as shown in Fig. 5. Hence, the calculated band structure interprets the observed anisotropic patterns from PL emission and the transition of modes between the surface extraction and waveguide propagation.

Fig. 6 Calculated photonic band diagram of Er3+-TeO2 PhCs. The yellow and red bars indicate the 1st and the 2nd photonic band gaps, respectively. kx is the wavevector in the Γ-X direction.

To investigate the broadband properties of PL enhancement, anisotropic emission enhancement factors FS and FW from λ = 1.50 µm to λ = 1.56 µm were analyzed. The PL intensities in the surface extraction mode and waveguide propagation modes were calculated by 2-D FDTD simulation. Figure 7(a) shows the spectral FS and FW values for PhCs with a = 800 nm. This value for a was chosen based on findings shown in Fig. 5 where a PhC with a = 800 nm had the highest surface emission ratio). As shown in Fig. 7(a), FS is 80% at Δ = 1.50 µm, and it drops to 55% at Δ = 1.56 µm. Therefore, though FS decreases as the wavelength of the PL increases, enhancement of surface emission beyond 50% is observed over the entire PL spectrum. Meanwhile FW remains −50% over the entire PL spectrum implying that the planar waveguide mode PL has been suppressed. Therefore, we have demonstrated that the PhC with a = 800 nm can significantly improve the efficiency of broadband surface extraction.

Fig. 7 Anisotropic emission enhancement factors FS and FW from λ = 1.50 µm to λ = 1.56 µm for PhCs with (a) a = 800 nm and (b) a = 300 nm.

Spectral enhancement factors for a PhC with a = 300 nm are also characterized and shown in Fig. 7(b) since this PhC demonstrates a strong waveguide propagation mode. The enhancement factor for the waveguide mode FW is 55% at λ = 1.50 µm and slightly decreases to 45% at λ = 1.56 µm while surface emission enhancement FS increases from −25% to −10% with an increase in PL wavelength. An averaged FW of 50% is demonstrated in the overall PL spectra. By using PhCs with a = 300 nm, the broadband PL can be highly confined in the Er3+-TeO2 layer. Figure 7(a) and 7(b) thus document that the emission pattern can be spatially modulated according to the needs of the integrated photonic devices. PL enhancement exhibits a low variation as the emission wavelength changes. Broadband PL emission can be anisotropically projected into in-plane micro-cavities or adjacent layers with biochemical sensors.

4. Conclusion

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that Er3+-TeO2 thin films using PhC structures can serve as a broadband nano-optical coupler between two emission modes: the surface PL mission and waveguide PL propagation. By optimizing the PhC structure, 1500 nm-1560 nm broadband PL emission from Er3+-TeO2 is successfully converted between these anisotropic modes. 60% enhancement of surface extraction efficiency is achieved when PhC with periodicity a = 800 nm is applied. 85% enhancement is observed for waveguide PL emission, at a = 300 nm. The high level of flexibility of emission mode selection and the enhancement of broadband PL make Er3+-TeO2 PhCs thin films a potential light source for three dimensional integrated photonic circuits.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Lirong Z. Broderick and Xing Sheng for helpful discussions, and Kurt Broderick for his expert technical collaboration. This study was supported by a grant from Masdar Institute of Science and Technology (Abu Dhabi, UAE).

References and links

1.

M. Miritello, R. Lo Savio, F. Iacona, G. Franzò, A. Irrera, A. M. Piro, C. Bongiorno, and F. Priolo, “Efficient luminescence and energy transfer in erbium silicate thin films,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.) 19(12), 1582–1588 (2007). [CrossRef]

2.

J. H. Kim and P. H. Holloway, “Near-infrared-electroluminescent light-emitting planar optical sources based on gallium nitride doped with rare earths,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.) 17(1), 91–96 (2005). [CrossRef]

3.

K. Suh, M. Lee, J. S. Chang, H. Lee, N. Park, G. Y. Sung, and J. H. Shin, “Cooperative upconversion and optical gain in ion-beam sputter-deposited ErxY2-xSiO5,” Opt. Express 18(8), 7724–7731 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

4.

M. T. Carlson, A. Khan, and H. H. Richardson, “Local temperature determination of optically excited nanoparticles and nanodots,” Nano Lett. 11(3), 1061–1069 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

5.

S. Shen, A. Jha, X. Liu, M. Naftaly, K. Bindra, H. J. Bookey, and A. K. Kar, “Tellurite glasses for broadband amplifiers and integrated optics,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 85(6), 1391–1395 (2002). [CrossRef]

6.

J. S. Wang, E. M. Vogel, and E. Snitzer, “Tellurite glass: a new candidate for fiber devices,” Opt. Mater. 3(3), 187–203 (1994). [CrossRef]

7.

I. Jlassi, H. Elhouichet, and M. Ferid, “Thermal and optical properties of tellurite glasses doped erbium,” J. Mater. Sci. 46(3), 806–812 (2011). [CrossRef]

8.

S. Shen, B. Richards, and A. Jha, “Enhancement in pump inversion efficiency at 980 nm in Er3+, Er3+/Eu3++ and Er3+/Ce3+ doped tellurite glass fibers,” Opt. Express 14(12), 5050–5054 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

9.

M. R. Oermann, H. Ebendorff-Heidepriem, Y. Li, T.-C. Foo, and T. M. Monro, “Index matching between passive and active tellurite glasses for use in microstructured fiber lasers: erbium doped lanthanum-tellurite glass,” Opt. Express 17(18), 15578–15584 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

10.

A. Mori, “Tellurite-based fibers and their applications to optical communication networks,” J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn. 116(1358), 1040–1051 (2008). [CrossRef]

11.

M. Pollnau and S. D. Jackson, “Mid-infrared fiber lasers solid-state mid-infrared laser sources,” Top. Appl. Phys. 89, 219–253 (2003).

12.

G. S. Murugan and Y. Ohishi, “TeO2–BaO–SrO–Nb2O5 glasses: a new glass system for waveguide devices applications,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 341(1-3), 86–92 (2004). [CrossRef]

13.

F. D’Amore, M. Di Giulio, S. M. Pietralunga, A. Zappettini, L. Nasi, V. Rigato, and M. Martinelli, “Sputtered stoichiometric teo2 glass films: dispersion of linear and nonlinear optical properties,” J. Appl. Phys. 94(3), 1654 (2003). [CrossRef]

14.

N. Dewan, V. Gupta, K. Sreenivas, and R. S. Katiyar, “Growth of amorphous TeOx (2 ≤ x ≤ 3) thin film by radio frequency sputtering,” J. Appl. Phys. 101(8), 084910 (2007). [CrossRef]

15.

X. J. Wang, G. Yuan, H. Isshiki, T. Kimura, and Z. J. Zhou, “Photoluminescence enhancement and high gain amplification of ErxY2−xSiO5 waveguide,” Appl. Phys. (Berl.) 108, 013506 (2010).

16.

D. Zhao, S.-J. Seo, and B.-S. Bae, “Full-color mesophase silicate thin film phosphors incorporated with rare earth ions and photosensitizers,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.) 19(21), 3473–3479 (2007). [CrossRef]

17.

M. Boroditsky, T. F. Krauss, R. Coccioli, R. Vrijen, R. Bhat, and E. Yablonovitch, “Light extraction from optically pumped light-emitting diode by thin-slab photonic crystals,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 75(8), 1036 (1999). [CrossRef]

18.

B. Cluzel, N. Pauc, V. Calvo, T. Charvolin, and E. Hadji, “Nanobox array for silicon-on-insulator luminescence enhancement at room temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 88(13), 133120 (2006). [CrossRef]

19.

B. Cluzel, V. Calvo, T. Charvolin, E. Picard, P. Noé, and E. Hadji, “Single-mode room-temperature emission with a silicon rod lattice,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 89(20), 201111 (2006). [CrossRef]

20.

M. Zelsmann, E. Picard, T. Charvolin, E. Hadji, M. Heitzmann, B. Dal’zotto, M. E. Nier, C. Seassal, P. Rojo-Romeo, and X. Letartre, “Seventy-fold enhancement of light extraction from a defectless photonic crystal made on silicon-on-insulator,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 83(13), 2542 (2003). [CrossRef]

21.

K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, Y. R. Do, and Y. D. Huh, “Structural effect of a two-dimensional SiO2 photonic crystal layer on extraction efficiency in sputter-deposited Y2O3:Eu3+ thin-film phosphors,” J. Appl. Phys. 102(1), 013509 (2007). [CrossRef]

22.

K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, H. K. Park, Y.-C. Kim, and Y. R. Do, “The variation of the enhanced photoluminescence efficiency of Y2O3:Eu3+ films with the thickness to the photonic crystal layer,” Opt. Express 16(8), 5689–5696 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

23.

T. Liu and R. Panepucci, “Confined waveguide modes in slot photonic crystal slab,” Opt. Express 15(7), 4304–4309 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

24.

C. E. Chryssou, “WDM systems in the C-band using Er3+-doped tellurite optical waveguide amplifiers,” Fiber Int. Opt. 20(6), 581–590 (2001). [CrossRef]

25.

C. E. Chryssou, F. Di Pasquale, and C. W. Pitt, “Er3+-doped channel optical waveguide amplifiers for WDM systems: a comparison of tellurite, alumina and Al/P silicate materials,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 6(1), 114–121 (2000). [CrossRef]

26.

G. N. Conti, S. Berneschi, M. Bettinelli, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, and G. C. Righini, “Rare-earth doped tungsten tellurite glasses and waveguides: fabrication and characterization,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 345, 343–348 (2004). [CrossRef]

27.

K. T. Vu and S. J. Madden, “Reactive ion etching of tellurite and chalcogenide waveguides using hydrogen, methane, and argon,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 29(1), 011023 (2011). [CrossRef]

28.

R. D. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th ed. (CRC, 2007).

29.

P. Nandi, G. Jose, C. Jayakrishnan, S. Debbarma, K. Chalapathi, K. Alti, A. K. Dharmadhikari, J. A. Dharmadhikari, and D. Mathur, “Femtosecond laser written channel waveguides in tellurite glass,” Opt. Express 14(25), 12145–12150 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

30.

S. Sakida, T. Nanba, and Y. Miura, “Refractive-index profiles and propagation losses of Er3+-doped tungsten tellurite glass waveguide by Ag+–Na+ Ion-exchange,” Mater. Lett. 60(28), 3413–3415 (2006). [CrossRef]

31.

S. Sakida, T. Nanba, and Y. Miura, “Optical properties of Er3+-doped tungsten tellurite glass waveguides by Ag+–Na+ ion-exchange,” Opt. Mater. 30(4), 586–593 (2007). [CrossRef]

32.

S. K. Sundaram, C. B. Schaffer, and E. Mazur, “Microexplosions in tellurite glasses,” Appl. Phys., A Mater. Sci. Process. 76(3), 379–384 (2003). [CrossRef]

33.

Y. Tokuda, M. Saito, M. Takahashi, K. Yamada, W. Watanabe, K. Itoh, and T. Yoko, “Waveguide formation in niobium tellurite glases by pico- and femtosecond laser pulses,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids 326–327, 472–475 (2003). [CrossRef]

34.

K. Vu and S. Madden, “Tellurium dioxide erbium doped planar rib waveguide amplifiers with net gain and 2.8 dB/cm internal gain,” Opt. Express 18(18), 19192–19200 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

35.

S. M. Pietralunga, M. Lanata, M. Ferè, D. Piccinin, G. Cusmai, M. Torregiani, and M. Martinelli, “High-contrast waveguides in sputtered pure TeO2 glass thin films,” Opt. Express 16(26), 21662–21670 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

36.

G. N. Conti, V. K. Tikhomirov, M. Bettinelli, S. Berneschi, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, A. B. Seddon, and G. C. Righini, “Characterization of ion-exchanged waveguides in tungsten tellurite and zinc tellurite Er3+-doped glasses,” Opt. Eng. 42(10), 2805 (2003). [CrossRef]

37.

V. Reboud, N. Kehagias, M. Zelsmann, C. Schuster, M. Fink, F. Reuther, G. Gruetzner, and C. M. Sotomayor Torres, “photoluminescence enhancement in nanoimprinted photonic crystals and coupled surface plasmons,” Opt. Express 15(12), 7190–7195 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

38.

A. C. Arsenault, T. J. Clark, G. von Freymann, L. Cademartiri, R. Sapienza, J. Bertolotti, E. Vekris, S. Wong, V. Kitaev, I. Manners, R. Z. Wang, S. John, D. Wiersma, and G. A. Ozin, “From colour fingerprinting to the control of photoluminescence in elastic photonic crystals,” Nat. Mater. 5(3), 179–184 (2006). [CrossRef]

OCIS Codes
(130.3120) Integrated optics : Integrated optics devices
(160.5690) Materials : Rare-earth-doped materials
(240.0310) Optics at surfaces : Thin films
(250.5230) Optoelectronics : Photoluminescence
(230.5298) Optical devices : Photonic crystals

ToC Category:
Photonic Crystals

History
Original Manuscript: November 1, 2011
Revised Manuscript: December 25, 2011
Manuscript Accepted: January 6, 2012
Published: January 17, 2012

Citation
Pao T. Lin, Michiel Vanhoutte, Neil S. Patel, Vivek Singh, Juejun Hu, Yan Cai, Rodolfo Camacho-Aguilera, Jurgen Michel, Lionel C. Kimerling, and Anu Agarwal, "Engineering broadband and anisotropic photoluminescence emission from rare earth doped tellurite thin film photonic crystals," Opt. Express 20, 2124-2135 (2012)
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-20-3-2124


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References

  1. M. Miritello, R. Lo Savio, F. Iacona, G. Franzò, A. Irrera, A. M. Piro, C. Bongiorno, and F. Priolo, “Efficient luminescence and energy transfer in erbium silicate thin films,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.)19(12), 1582–1588 (2007). [CrossRef]
  2. J. H. Kim and P. H. Holloway, “Near-infrared-electroluminescent light-emitting planar optical sources based on gallium nitride doped with rare earths,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.)17(1), 91–96 (2005). [CrossRef]
  3. K. Suh, M. Lee, J. S. Chang, H. Lee, N. Park, G. Y. Sung, and J. H. Shin, “Cooperative upconversion and optical gain in ion-beam sputter-deposited ErxY2-xSiO5,” Opt. Express18(8), 7724–7731 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. M. T. Carlson, A. Khan, and H. H. Richardson, “Local temperature determination of optically excited nanoparticles and nanodots,” Nano Lett.11(3), 1061–1069 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. S. Shen, A. Jha, X. Liu, M. Naftaly, K. Bindra, H. J. Bookey, and A. K. Kar, “Tellurite glasses for broadband amplifiers and integrated optics,” J. Am. Ceram. Soc.85(6), 1391–1395 (2002). [CrossRef]
  6. J. S. Wang, E. M. Vogel, and E. Snitzer, “Tellurite glass: a new candidate for fiber devices,” Opt. Mater.3(3), 187–203 (1994). [CrossRef]
  7. I. Jlassi, H. Elhouichet, and M. Ferid, “Thermal and optical properties of tellurite glasses doped erbium,” J. Mater. Sci.46(3), 806–812 (2011). [CrossRef]
  8. S. Shen, B. Richards, and A. Jha, “Enhancement in pump inversion efficiency at 980 nm in Er3+, Er3+/Eu3++ and Er3+/Ce3+ doped tellurite glass fibers,” Opt. Express14(12), 5050–5054 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. M. R. Oermann, H. Ebendorff-Heidepriem, Y. Li, T.-C. Foo, and T. M. Monro, “Index matching between passive and active tellurite glasses for use in microstructured fiber lasers: erbium doped lanthanum-tellurite glass,” Opt. Express17(18), 15578–15584 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. A. Mori, “Tellurite-based fibers and their applications to optical communication networks,” J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn.116(1358), 1040–1051 (2008). [CrossRef]
  11. M. Pollnau and S. D. Jackson, “Mid-infrared fiber lasers solid-state mid-infrared laser sources,” Top. Appl. Phys.89, 219–253 (2003).
  12. G. S. Murugan and Y. Ohishi, “TeO2–BaO–SrO–Nb2O5 glasses: a new glass system for waveguide devices applications,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids341(1-3), 86–92 (2004). [CrossRef]
  13. F. D’Amore, M. Di Giulio, S. M. Pietralunga, A. Zappettini, L. Nasi, V. Rigato, and M. Martinelli, “Sputtered stoichiometric teo2 glass films: dispersion of linear and nonlinear optical properties,” J. Appl. Phys.94(3), 1654 (2003). [CrossRef]
  14. N. Dewan, V. Gupta, K. Sreenivas, and R. S. Katiyar, “Growth of amorphous TeOx (2 ≤ x ≤ 3) thin film by radio frequency sputtering,” J. Appl. Phys.101(8), 084910 (2007). [CrossRef]
  15. X. J. Wang, G. Yuan, H. Isshiki, T. Kimura, and Z. J. Zhou, “Photoluminescence enhancement and high gain amplification of ErxY2−xSiO5 waveguide,” Appl. Phys. (Berl.)108, 013506 (2010).
  16. D. Zhao, S.-J. Seo, and B.-S. Bae, “Full-color mesophase silicate thin film phosphors incorporated with rare earth ions and photosensitizers,” Adv. Mater. (Deerfield Beach Fla.)19(21), 3473–3479 (2007). [CrossRef]
  17. M. Boroditsky, T. F. Krauss, R. Coccioli, R. Vrijen, R. Bhat, and E. Yablonovitch, “Light extraction from optically pumped light-emitting diode by thin-slab photonic crystals,” Appl. Phys. Lett.75(8), 1036 (1999). [CrossRef]
  18. B. Cluzel, N. Pauc, V. Calvo, T. Charvolin, and E. Hadji, “Nanobox array for silicon-on-insulator luminescence enhancement at room temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett.88(13), 133120 (2006). [CrossRef]
  19. B. Cluzel, V. Calvo, T. Charvolin, E. Picard, P. Noé, and E. Hadji, “Single-mode room-temperature emission with a silicon rod lattice,” Appl. Phys. Lett.89(20), 201111 (2006). [CrossRef]
  20. M. Zelsmann, E. Picard, T. Charvolin, E. Hadji, M. Heitzmann, B. Dal’zotto, M. E. Nier, C. Seassal, P. Rojo-Romeo, and X. Letartre, “Seventy-fold enhancement of light extraction from a defectless photonic crystal made on silicon-on-insulator,” Appl. Phys. Lett.83(13), 2542 (2003). [CrossRef]
  21. K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, Y. R. Do, and Y. D. Huh, “Structural effect of a two-dimensional SiO2 photonic crystal layer on extraction efficiency in sputter-deposited Y2O3:Eu3+ thin-film phosphors,” J. Appl. Phys.102(1), 013509 (2007). [CrossRef]
  22. K.-Y. Ko, Y. K. Lee, H. K. Park, Y.-C. Kim, and Y. R. Do, “The variation of the enhanced photoluminescence efficiency of Y2O3:Eu3+ films with the thickness to the photonic crystal layer,” Opt. Express16(8), 5689–5696 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. T. Liu and R. Panepucci, “Confined waveguide modes in slot photonic crystal slab,” Opt. Express15(7), 4304–4309 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. C. E. Chryssou, “WDM systems in the C-band using Er3+-doped tellurite optical waveguide amplifiers,” Fiber Int. Opt.20(6), 581–590 (2001). [CrossRef]
  25. C. E. Chryssou, F. Di Pasquale, and C. W. Pitt, “Er3+-doped channel optical waveguide amplifiers for WDM systems: a comparison of tellurite, alumina and Al/P silicate materials,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron.6(1), 114–121 (2000). [CrossRef]
  26. G. N. Conti, S. Berneschi, M. Bettinelli, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, and G. C. Righini, “Rare-earth doped tungsten tellurite glasses and waveguides: fabrication and characterization,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids345, 343–348 (2004). [CrossRef]
  27. K. T. Vu and S. J. Madden, “Reactive ion etching of tellurite and chalcogenide waveguides using hydrogen, methane, and argon,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A29(1), 011023 (2011). [CrossRef]
  28. R. D. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th ed. (CRC, 2007).
  29. P. Nandi, G. Jose, C. Jayakrishnan, S. Debbarma, K. Chalapathi, K. Alti, A. K. Dharmadhikari, J. A. Dharmadhikari, and D. Mathur, “Femtosecond laser written channel waveguides in tellurite glass,” Opt. Express14(25), 12145–12150 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. S. Sakida, T. Nanba, and Y. Miura, “Refractive-index profiles and propagation losses of Er3+-doped tungsten tellurite glass waveguide by Ag+–Na+ Ion-exchange,” Mater. Lett.60(28), 3413–3415 (2006). [CrossRef]
  31. S. Sakida, T. Nanba, and Y. Miura, “Optical properties of Er3+-doped tungsten tellurite glass waveguides by Ag+–Na+ ion-exchange,” Opt. Mater.30(4), 586–593 (2007). [CrossRef]
  32. S. K. Sundaram, C. B. Schaffer, and E. Mazur, “Microexplosions in tellurite glasses,” Appl. Phys., A Mater. Sci. Process.76(3), 379–384 (2003). [CrossRef]
  33. Y. Tokuda, M. Saito, M. Takahashi, K. Yamada, W. Watanabe, K. Itoh, and T. Yoko, “Waveguide formation in niobium tellurite glases by pico- and femtosecond laser pulses,” J. Non-Cryst. Solids326–327, 472–475 (2003). [CrossRef]
  34. K. Vu and S. Madden, “Tellurium dioxide erbium doped planar rib waveguide amplifiers with net gain and 2.8 dB/cm internal gain,” Opt. Express18(18), 19192–19200 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. S. M. Pietralunga, M. Lanata, M. Ferè, D. Piccinin, G. Cusmai, M. Torregiani, and M. Martinelli, “High-contrast waveguides in sputtered pure TeO2 glass thin films,” Opt. Express16(26), 21662–21670 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. G. N. Conti, V. K. Tikhomirov, M. Bettinelli, S. Berneschi, M. Brenci, B. Chen, S. Pelli, A. Speghini, A. B. Seddon, and G. C. Righini, “Characterization of ion-exchanged waveguides in tungsten tellurite and zinc tellurite Er3+-doped glasses,” Opt. Eng.42(10), 2805 (2003). [CrossRef]
  37. V. Reboud, N. Kehagias, M. Zelsmann, C. Schuster, M. Fink, F. Reuther, G. Gruetzner, and C. M. Sotomayor Torres, “photoluminescence enhancement in nanoimprinted photonic crystals and coupled surface plasmons,” Opt. Express15(12), 7190–7195 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. A. C. Arsenault, T. J. Clark, G. von Freymann, L. Cademartiri, R. Sapienza, J. Bertolotti, E. Vekris, S. Wong, V. Kitaev, I. Manners, R. Z. Wang, S. John, D. Wiersma, and G. A. Ozin, “From colour fingerprinting to the control of photoluminescence in elastic photonic crystals,” Nat. Mater.5(3), 179–184 (2006). [CrossRef]

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