OSA's Digital Library

Optics Express

Optics Express

  • Editor: J. H. Eberly
  • Vol. 3, Iss. 12 — Dec. 7, 1998
  • pp: 497–511

Optics InfoBase > Optics Express > Volume 3 > Issue 12 > Page 497

« Show journal navigation

Wavelet transform based watermark for digital images

Xiang Gen Xia, Charles Boncelet, and Gonzalo Arce  »View Author Affiliations


Optics Express, Vol. 3, Issue 12, pp. 497-511 (1998)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.3.000497


View Full Text Article

Acrobat PDF (6725 KB)


Advanced Search

Browse Journals / Lookup Meetings

Browse by Journal and Year


   


Lookup Conference Papers

Close Browse Journals / Lookup Meetings

Article Tools

Share
Citations

Abstract

In this paper, we introduce a new multiresolution watermarking method for digital images. The method is based on the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). Pseudo-random codes are added to the large coefficients at the high and middle frequency bands of the DWT of an image. It is shown that this method is more robust to proposed methods to some common image distortions, such as the wavelet transform based image compression, image rescaling/stretching and image halftoning. Moreover, the method is hierarchical.

© Optical Society of America

[Optical Society of America ]

1. Introduction

With the rapid development of the current information technology, electronic publishing, such as the distribution of digitized images/videos, is becoming more and more popular. An important issue for electronic publishing is copyright protection. Watermarking is one of the current copyright protection methods that have recently received considerable attention. See, for example, [1–8

R. G. van Schyndel, A. Z. Tirkel, and C. F. Osborne, “A digital watermark,” Proc. ICIP’94 , 2, 86–90 (1994).

, 18

S. Craver, N. Memon, B-L Yeo, and M. M. Yeung, “Resolving rightful ownerships with invisible watermarking techniques: limitations, attacks, and implications,” IBM Research Report (RC 20755), March 1997.

]. Basically, “invisible” watermarking for digital images consists of signing an image with a signature or copyright message such that the message is secretly embedded in the image and there is negligible visible difference between the original and the signed images.

There are two common methods of watermarking: the frequency domain and the spatial domain watermarks, for example [1–8

R. G. van Schyndel, A. Z. Tirkel, and C. F. Osborne, “A digital watermark,” Proc. ICIP’94 , 2, 86–90 (1994).

, 18

S. Craver, N. Memon, B-L Yeo, and M. M. Yeung, “Resolving rightful ownerships with invisible watermarking techniques: limitations, attacks, and implications,” IBM Research Report (RC 20755), March 1997.

]. In this paper, we focus on frequency domain watermarks. Recent frequency domain watermarking methods are based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT), where pseudo-random sequences, such as M-sequences, are added to the DCT coefficients at the middle frequencies as signatures [2–3

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

]. This approach, of course, matches the current image/video compression standards well, such as JPEG, MPEG1-2, etc. It is likely that the wavelet image/video coding, such as embedded zero-tree wavelet (EZW) coding, will be included in the up-coming image/video compression standards, such as JPEG2000 and MPEG4. Therefore, it is important to study watermarking methods in the wavelet transform domain.

In this paper, we propose a wavelet transform based watermarking method by adding pseudo-random codes to the large coefficients at the high and middle frequency bands of the discrete wavelet transform of an image. The basic idea is the same as the spread spectrum watermarking idea proposed by Cox et. al. in [2

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

]. There are, however, three advantages to the approach in the wavelet transform domain. The first advantage is that the watermarking method has multiresolution characteristics and is hierarchical. In the case when the received image is not distorted significantly, the cross correlations with the whole size of the image may not be necessary, and therefore much of the computational load can be saved. The second advantage lies in the following argument. It is usually true that the human eyes are not sensitive to the small changes in edges and textures of an image but are very sensitive to the small changes in the smooth parts of an image. With the DWT, the edges and textures are usually well confined to the high frequency subands, such as HH, LH, HL etc. Large coefficients in these bands usually indicate edges in an image. Therefore, adding watermarks to these large coefficients is difficult for the human eyes to perceive. The third advantage is that this approach matches the emerging image/video compression standards. Our numerical results show that the watermarking method we propose is very robust to wavelet transform based image compressions, such as the embedded zero-tree wavelet (EZW) image compression scheme, and as well as to other common image distortions, such as additive noise, rescaling/stretching, and halftoning. The intuitive reason for the advantage of the DWT approach over the DCT approach in rescaling is as follows. The DCT coefficients for the rescaled image are shifted in two directions from the ones for the original image, which degrades the correlation detection for the watermark. Since the DWT are localized not only in the time but also in the frequency domain [9–15

S. Mallat, “Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthonormal bases of L 2(R),” Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. , 315, 69–87 (1989).

], the degradation for the correlation detection in the DWT domain is not as serious as the one in the DCT domain.

Another difference in this paper with the approach proposed by Cox et. al. in [2

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

] is the watermark detection using the correlation measure. The watermark detection method in [2

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

] is to take the inner product (the correlation at the τ = 0 offset) of the watermark and the difference in the DCT domain of the watermarked image and the original image. Even though both the difference and the watermark are normalized, the inner product may be small if the difference significantly differs from the watermark although there may be a watermark in the image. In this case, it may fail to detect the watermark. In this paper, we propose to take the correlation at all offsets τ of the watermark and the difference in the DWT domain the watermarked image and the original image in different resolutions. The advantage of this new approach is that, although the peak correlation value may not be large, it is much larger than all other correlation values at other offsets if there is a watermark in the image. This ensures the detection of the watermark even though there is a significant distortion in the watermarked image. The correlation detection method in this paper is a relative measure rather than an absolute measure as in [2

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

].

This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we briefly review some basics on discrete wavelet transforms (DWT). In Section 3, we propose our new watermarking method based on the DWT. In Section 4, we implement some numerical experiments in terms of several different image distortions, such as, additive noise, rescaling/stretching, image compression with EZW coding and halftoning.

2. Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT): A Brief Review

The wavelet transform has been extensively studied in the last decade, see for example [9–16

S. Mallat, “Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthonormal bases of L 2(R),” Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. , 315, 69–87 (1989).

]. Many applications, such as compression, detection, and communications, of wavelet transforms have been found. There are many excellent tutorial books and papers on these topics. Here, we introduce the necessary concepts of the DWT for the purposes of this paper. For more details, see [9–15

S. Mallat, “Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthonormal bases of L 2(R),” Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. , 315, 69–87 (1989).

].

The basic idea in the DWT for a one dimensional signal is the following. A signal is split into two parts, usually high frequencies and low frequencies. The edge components of the signal are largely confined to the high frequency part. The low frequency part is split again into two parts of high and low frequencies. This process is continued an arbitrary number of times, which is usually determined by the application at hand. Furthermore, from these DWT coefficients, the original signal can be reconstructed. This reconstruction process is called the inverse DWT (IDWT). The DWT and IDWT can be mathematically stated as follows.

Let

H (ω)= ∑k hk e −jkω, and G (ω) = ∑k gk e −jkω.

be a lowpass and a highpass filter, respectively, which satisfy a certain condition for reconstruction to be stated later. A signal, x[n] can be decomposed recursively as

c j − 1,k= ∑n h n − 2k c j,n
(1)
d j − 1,k= ∑n g n − 2k c j,n
(2)

for j = J+1, J,…, J 0 where c J+1,k = x[k], k ∊ Z, J+1 is the high resolution level index, and J 0 is the low resolution level index. The coefficients c j 0,k , d J 0,k ,d J 0+1,k ,…,d j,k are called the DWT of signal x[n], where c J 0,k is the lowest resolution part of x[n] and d j,k are the details of x[n] at various bands of frequencies. Furthermore, the signal x[n] can be reconstructed from its DWT coefficients recursively

c j,n= ∑k h n − 2k c j − 1,k+ ∑k g n − 2k d j − 1,k.
(3)
Figure 1. DWT for one dimensional signals.
Figure 2. DWT for two dimensional images.

The above reconstruction is called the IDWT of x[n]. To ensure the above IDWT and DWT relationship, the following orthogonality condition on the filters H(ω) and G(ω) is needed:

∣H (ω)∣2+ ∣G (ω)∣2= 1.

An example of such H(ω) and G(ω) is given by

H (ω)= 12+ 12 e −jω, and G (ω)= 12 − 12 e −jω,

which are known as the Haar wavelet filters.

The above DWT and IDWT for a one dimensional signal x[n] can be also described in the form of two channel tree-structured filterbanks as shown in Fig. 1. The DWT and IDWT for two dimensional images x[m, n] can be similarly defined by implementing the one dimensional DWT and IDWT for each dimension m and n separately: DWT n [DWT m [x[m, n]]], which is shown in Fig. 2. An image can be decomposed into a pyramid structure, shown in Fig. 3, with various band information: such as low-low frequency band, low-high frequency band, high-high frequency band etc. An example of such decomposition with two levels is shown in Fig. 4, where the edges appear in all bands except in the lowest frequency band, i.e., the corner part at the left and top.

Figure 3. DWT pyramid decomposition of an image.
Figure 4. Example of a DWT pyramid decomposition.

3. Watermarking in the DWT Domain

Watermarking in the DWT domain is composed of two parts: encoding and decoding. In the encoding part, we first decompose an image into several bands with a pyramid structure as shown in Figs. 3–4 and then add a pseudo-random sequence (Gaussian noise) to the largest coefficients which are not located in the lowest resolution, i.e., the corner at the left and top, as follows. Let y[m, n] denote the DWT coefficients, which are not located at the lowest frequency band, of an image x[n, m]. We add a Gaussian noise sequence N[m, n] with mean 0 and variance 1 to y[m, n]:

y͂ [ m,n]= y [ m,n]+α y2 [ m,n]N [ m,n],
(4)

where α is a parameter to control the level of the watermark, the square indicates the amplification of the large DWT coeffcients. We do not change the DWT coefficients at the lowest resolution. Then, we take the two dimensional IDWT of the modified DWT coefficients y͂ and the unchanged DWT coefficients at the lowest resolution. Let x͂[m, n] denote the IDWT coefficients. For the resultant image to have the same dynamic range as the original image, it is modified as

x̂ [ m,n]=min (max (x [ m,n]),max { x͂ [ m,n],min (x [ m,n])}).
(5)

The operation in (5) is to make the two dimensional data x͂[m, n] be the same dynamic range as the original image x[m, n]. The resultant image x͂[m, n] is the watermarked image of xˆ [m, n]. The encoding part is illustrated in Fig. 5(a).

Figure 5. Watermarking in the DWT domain.

The decoding method we propose is hierarchical and described as follows. We first decompose a received image and the original image (it is assumed that the original image is known) with the DWT into four bands, i.e., low-low (LL 1) band, low-high (LH 1) band, high-low (HL 1) band, and high-high (HH 1) band, respectively. We then compare the signature added in the HH 1 band and the difference of the DWT coefficients in HH 1 bands of the received and the original images by calculating their cross correlations. If there is a peak in the cross correlations, the signature is called detected. Otherwise, compare the signature added in the HH 1 and LH 1 bands with the difference of the DWT coefficients in the HH 1 and LH 1 bands, respectively. If there is a peak, the signature is detected. Otherwise, we consider the signature added in the HL 1, LH 1, and HH 1 bands. If there is still no peak in the cross correlations, we continue to decompose the original and the received signals in the LL 1 band into four additional subbands LL 2, LH 2, HL 2 and HH 2 and so on until a peak appears in the cross correlations. Otherwise, the signature can not be detected. The decoding method is illustrated in Fig. 5(b).

4. Numerical Examples

We implement two watermarking methods: one is using the DCT approach proposed by Cox el. al. in [2

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

] and the other is using the DWT approach proposed in this paper. In the DWT approach, the Haar DWT is used. Two step DWT is implemented and images are decomposed into 7 subbands. Watermarks, Gaussian noise, are added into all 6 subbands but not in the lowest subband (the lowest frequency components). In the DCT approach, watermarks (Gaussian noise) are added to all the DCT coefficients. The levels of watermarks in the DWT and DCT approaches are the same, i.e., the total energies of the watermark values in these two approaches are the same. It should be noted that we have also implemented the DCT watermarking method when the pseudorandom sequence is added to the DCT values at the same positions as the ones in the above DWT approach, i.e., the middle frequencies. We found that the performance is not as good as the one by adding watermarks in all the frequencies in the DCT domain.

Two images with size 512 × 512, “peppers” and “car,” are tested. Fig. 6(a) shows the original “peppers” image. Fig. 6(b) shows the watermarked image with the DWT approach and Fig. 7(a) shows the watermarked image with the DCT approach. Both watermarked images are indistinguishable from the original. A similar property holds for the second test image “car,” whose original image is shown in Fig. 8(b).

The first distortion against which we test our algorithm with is additive noise. Two noisy images are shown in Fig. 7(b) and Fig. 8(a), respectively. When the variance of the additive noise is not too large, such as the one shown in Fig. 7(b), the signature can be detected only using the information in the HH 1 band with the DWT approach, where the cross correlations are shown in Fig. 9(a) and a peak can be clearly seen. When the variance of the additive noise is large, such as the one shown in Fig. 8(a), the HH 1 band information is not good enough with the DWT approach, where the cross correlations are shown in Fig. 9(b) and no clear peak can be seen. However, the signature can be detected by using the information in the HH 1 and LH 1 bands with the DWT approach, where the cross correlations are shown in Fig. 9(d) and a peak can be clearly seen. For the second noisy image, we have also implemented the DCT approach. In this case, the signature with the DCT approach can not be detected, where the correlations are shown in Fig. 9(c) and no clear peak can be seen. Similar results hold for the “car” image and the correlations are shown in Fig. 10.

The second “test” distortion is rescaling/stretching for “peppers” and “car” images. three types of rescaling/stretchings are implemented. In the first two implementations, the rescaled/stretched images are rescaled back to the same size of the original image using interpolations, where 25% reduction/enlargement is used. In the third implementation, the stretched images are simply cut back to the original size, where 1% and 2% stretching is used.

In the rescaling, an image, x, is reduced to 3/4 of the original size. The method of the rescaling is from the MATLAB function called “imresize.” as imresize(x, 1-1/4, ‘method’) where ‘method’ indicates one of the methods in the interpolations between pixels: piecewise constant, bilinear spline, and cubic spline. With the received smaller size image, for the watermark detection we extend it to the normal size, i.e., 512 × 512, by using the same Matlab function “imresize” as imresize(y, 1+1/3, ‘method’), where ‘method’ is also one of the above interpolation methods. In this experiment, we implemented two different interpolation methods in imresize in the rescaling distortion: the piecewise constant method and the cubic spline method. In the detection, we alway use the cubic spline as imresize(y, 1+1/3, ‘bicubic’). Similar results also hold for other combinations of these interpolation methods. Fig. 11 illustrate the detection results for the “peppers” image: Fig. 11(a),(c) show the cross correlations with the DWT approach while Fig. 11(b),(d) show the cross correlations with the DCT approach. In Fig. 11(a), (b), the rescaling method is imresize(x,1-1/4,‘nearest’), i.e., the piecewise constant interpolation is used. In Fig. 11(c),(d), the rescaling method is imresize(x,1-1/4,‘bicubic’), i.e., the cubic spline interpolation is used. One can see the better performance of the DWT approach over the DCT approach. Similar results hold for the “car” image and are shown in Fig. 12.

When, in the above rescaling experiment, the size of an image is first reduced and then extended in the detection, in the stretching, an image is first extended and then reduced in the detection. The same Matlab function imresize as in the rescaling is used. In the stretching experiment, an image is extended by 1/4 of the original size, i.e., the MATLAB function imresize(x, 1+1/4, ‘method’), is used, where ‘method’ is the same as in the rescaling. In the detection, the received image is reduced by 1/5 to the original size, i.e., the Matlab function imresize(y, 1-1/5, ‘method’) is used. The rest is similar to the one in the rescaling. Figs. 13 and 14 show the correlation properties for the “peppers” and the “car” images, respectively.

In the third implementation of rescaling/stretching, an image is first stretched by 1% and 2% using the MATLAB function imresize(y, 1+1/100, ‘method’) and imresize(y, 1+2/100, ‘method’), respectively. The stretched image is then cut back to the original size. Two images “peppers” and “car” are tested. Figs. 15–16 shows the correlation properties for the “peppers” and the “car” images, respectively, where (a) and (b) are for the 1% stretching, and (c) and (d) are for the 2% stretching.

The third “test” distortion is image compression. Two watermarked images with the DWT and DCT approaches shown in Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 7(a) are compressed by using the EZW coding algorithm. The compression ratio is chosen as 64, i.e., 0.125bpp. With these two compressed images, the correlations are shown in Fig. 17 (a) and (b), where a peak in the middle can be clearly seen in Fig. 17(a) with the DWT approach, but no clear peaks can be seen in Fig. 17(b) with the DCT approach. This is not very surprising because the compression scheme is not suitable for the DCT approach. It should be noticed that the wavelet filters in the EZW compression are the commonly used Daubechies “9/7” biorthogonal wavelet filters while the wavelet filters in the watermarking are the simpliest Haar wavelet filters mentioned in Section 2.

The last “test” distortion is halftoning. The two watermarked images in Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 7(a) are both halftoned by using the following standard method. Let x[m, n] be an image with 8 bit levels. To halftone it, we do the nonuniform thresholding through the Bayer‘s dither matrix T [17

R. Ulichney, Digital Halftoning, (MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1987).

]:

T= ( T j,k) 4×4 =16 ( 11 7 10 6 3 15 2 14 9 5 12 8 1 13 4 16)

in the following way. Compare each disjoint 4×4 blocks in the image x[m,n]. If x[m * 4 + j, n * 4 + k] ≥ T j,k , then it is quantized to 1, and otherwise it is quantized to 0. Both DWT and DCT watermarking methods are tested. Surprisingly, we found that the watermarking method based on DWT we proposed in this paper is more robust than the method based on the DCT in [2–3

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

]. The correlations are shown in Fig. 18(a) and (b), where (a) corresponds to the DWT approach while (b) corresponds to the DCT approach. One can clearly see a peak in the middle in Fig. 18(a) while no any clear peak in the middle can be seen in Fig. 18(b). In this experiment, the watermark was added to the middle frequencies in the DCT approach and no inverse halftoning was used.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, we have introduced a new multiresolution watermarking method using the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). In this method, Gaussian random noise is added to the large coefficients but not in the lowest subband in the DWT domain. The decoding is hierarchical. If distortion of a watermarked image is not serious, only a few bands worth of information are needed to detect the signature and therefore computational load can be saved. We have also implemented numerical examples for several kinds of distortions, such as additive noise, rescaling/stretching, compressed image with the wavelet approach such as the EZW, and halftoning. It is found that the DWT based watermark approach we proposed in this paper is robust to all the above distortions while the DCT approach is not, in particular, to distortions, such as compression, rescaling/stretching (1%, 2%, and 25% were tested), and additive noise with large noise variance.

Figure 6. (a) Original “pepper” image; (b) Watermarked image using DWT.
Figure 7. (a) Watermarked image using DCT; (b) Watermarked image with low additive noise.
Figure 8. (a) Watermarked image with high additive noise; (b) Original “car” image.
Figure 9. Correlations for watermark detection for the “peppers” image: (a) DWT with HH 1 band for low additive noise; (b) DWT with HH 1 band for high additive noise; (d) DWT with HH 1 and LH 1 bands for high additive noise; (c) DCT for high additive noise.
Figure 10. Correlations for watermark detection for the “car” image: (a) DWT with HH 1 band for low additive noise; (b) DWT with HH 1 band for high additive noise; (d) DWT with HH 1 and LH 1 bands for high additive noise; (c) DCT for high additive noise.
Figure 11. Correlations for watermark detection for the rescaled “peppers” image: (a) and (b) piecewise constant interpolation in the rescaling and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) cubic spline interpolation in the rescaling and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 12. Correlations for watermark detection for the rescaled “car” image: (a) and (b) piecewise constant interpolation in the rescaling and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) cubic spline interpolation in the rescaling and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 13. Correlations for watermark detection for the stretched “peppers” image: (a) and (b) piecewise constant interpolation in the rescaling and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) cubic spline interpolation in the rescaling and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 14. Correlations for watermark detection for the stretched “car” image: (a) and (b) piecewise constant interpolation in the rescaling and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) cubic spline interpolation in the rescaling and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 15. Correlations for watermark detection for the stretched “peppers” image: (a) and (b) 1% stretching and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) 2% stretching and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 16. Correlations for watermark detection for the stretched “car” image: (a) and (b) 1% stretching and (a) DWT (b) DCT; (c) and (d) 2% stretching and (c) DWT (d) DCT.
Figure 17. Correlations for watermark detection for compressed images: (a) DWT; (b) DCT.
Figure 18. Correlations for watermark detection for halftoned images: (a) DWT; (b) DCT.

6. Acknowledgements

Xia was supported in part by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) under Grant No. F49620-97-1-0253 and the National Science Foundation CAREER Program under Grant MIP-9703377. Boncelet and Arce were supported in part through collaborative participation in the Advanced Telecommunications/Information Distribution Research Program (ATIRP) Consortium sponsored by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory under the Federated Laboratory Program, Cooperative Agreement DAAL01-96-0002. Arce was also supported in part by the National Science Foundation under the Grant MIP-9530923. They wish to thank the anonymous referees and the guest editor, Dr. In-gemar Cox, for their many helpful comments and suggestions that improved the clarity of this manuscript. They would also like to thank Mr. Jose Paredes for implementing numerous image compressions using the EZW method.

References

1.

R. G. van Schyndel, A. Z. Tirkel, and C. F. Osborne, “A digital watermark,” Proc. ICIP’94 , 2, 86–90 (1994).

2.

I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 243–246 (1996).

3.

J. Zhao and E. Koch, “Embedding robust labels into images for copyright protection,” Proceedings of the International Congress on Intellectual Property Rights for Specialized Information, Knowledge and New Technologies, Vienna, Austria, August 21-25, 242–251 (1995).

4.

R. B. Wolfgang and E. J. Delp, “A watermark for digital images,” Proc. ICIP‘96 , 3, 219–222 (1996).

5.

I. Pitas, “A method for signature casting on digital images,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 215–218 (1996).

6.

N. Nikolaidis and I. Pitas, “Copyright protection of images using robust digital signatures,” Proceedings of ICASSP’96, Atlanta, Georgia, May, 2168–2171 (1996).

7.

M. D. Swanson, B. Zhu, and A. H. Tewfik, “Transparent robust image watermarking,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 211–214 (1996).

8.

M. Schneider and S.-F. Chang, “A robust content based digital signature for image authentication,” Proc. ICIP’96 , 3, 227–230 (1996).

9.

S. Mallat, “Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthonormal bases of L 2(R),” Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. , 315, 69–87 (1989).

10.

I. Daubechies, “Orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets,” Comm. on Pure and Appl. Math. , 41, 909–996 (1988). [CrossRef]

11.

O. Rioul and M. Vetterli, “Wavelets and signal processing,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine , 14–38, (1991). [CrossRef]

12.

I. Daubechies, Ten Lectures on Wavelets, (SIAM, Philadelphia, 1992).

13.

P. P. Vaidyanathan, Multirate Systems and Filter Banks, (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993).

14.

M. Vetterli and J. Kovačević, Wavelets and Subband Coding, (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995).

15.

G. Strang and T. Q. Nguyen, Wavelets and Filter Banks, (Wellesley-Cambridge Press, Cambridge, 1996).

16.

J. Shapiro, “Embedded image coding using zerotrees of wavelet coefficients,” IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing , 41, 3445–3462 (1993). [CrossRef]

17.

R. Ulichney, Digital Halftoning, (MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1987).

18.

S. Craver, N. Memon, B-L Yeo, and M. M. Yeung, “Resolving rightful ownerships with invisible watermarking techniques: limitations, attacks, and implications,” IBM Research Report (RC 20755), March 1997.

OCIS Codes
(100.0100) Image processing : Image processing
(110.2960) Imaging systems : Image analysis

ToC Category:
Focus Issue: Digital watermarking

History
Original Manuscript: October 28, 1998
Published: December 7, 1998

Citation
Xiang Gen Xia, Charles Boncelet, and Gonzalo Arce, "Wavelet transform based watermark for digital images," Opt. Express 3, 497-511 (1998)
http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?URI=oe-3-12-497


Sort:  Journal  |  Reset  

References

  1. R. G. van Schyndel, A. Z. Tirkel, and C. F. Osborne, "A digital watermark," Proc. ICIP'94, 2, 86-90 (1994).
  2. I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, "Secure spread spectrum watermarking for images, audio and video," Proc. ICIP'96, 3, 243-246 (1996).
  3. J. Zhao and E. Koch, "Embedding robust labels into images for copyright protection," Proceedings of the International Congress on Intellectual Property Rights for Specialized Information, Knowledge and New Technologies, Vienna, Austria, August 21-25, 242-251 (1995).
  4. R. B. Wolfgang and E. J. Delp, "A watermark for digital images," Proc. ICIP'96, 3, 219-222 (1996).
  5. I. Pitas, "A method for signature casting on digital images," Proc. ICIP'96, 3, 215-218 (1996).
  6. N. Nikolaidis and I. Pitas, "Copyright protection of images using robust digital signatures," Proceedings of ICASSP'96, Atlanta, Georgia, May, 2168-2171 (1996).
  7. M. D. Swanson, B. Zhu, and A. H. Tewfik, "Transparent robust image watermarking," Proc. ICIP'96, 3, 211-214 (1996).
  8. M. Schneider and S.-F. Chang, "A robust content based digital signature for image authentication," Proc. ICIP'96, 3, 227-230 (1996).
  9. S. Mallat, "Multiresolution approximations and wavelet orthonormal bases of L 2 (R)," Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 315, 69-87 (1989).
  10. I. Daubechies, "Orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets," Comm. on Pure and Appl. Math., 41, 909-996 (1988). [CrossRef]
  11. O. Rioul and M. Vetterli, "Wavelets and signal processing," IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 14-38, (1991). [CrossRef]
  12. I. Daubechies, Ten Lectures on Wavelets, (SIAM, Philadelphia, 1992).
  13. P. P. Vaidyanathan, Multirate Systems and Filter Banks, (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993).
  14. M. Vetterli and J. Kovacevic, Wavelets and Subband Coding, (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995).
  15. G. Strang and T. Q. Nguyen, Wavelets and Filter Banks, (Wellesley-Cambridge Press, Cambridge, 1996).
  16. J. Shapiro, "Embedded image coding using zerotrees of wavelet coefficients," IEEE Trans. on Signal Processing, 41, 3445-3462 (1993). [CrossRef]
  17. R. Ulichney, Digital Halftoning, (MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1987).
  18. S. Craver, N. Memon, B-L Yeo, and M. M. Yeung, "Resolving rightful ownerships with invisible watermarking techniques: limitations, attacks, and implications," IBM Research Report (RC 20755), March 1997.

Cited By

 Alert me when this paper is cited

OSA is able to provide readers links to articles that cite this paper by participating in CrossRef's Cited-By Linking service. CrossRef includes content from more than 3000 publishers and societies. In addition to listing OSA journal articles that cite this paper, citing articles from other participating publishers will also be listed.


« Previous Article  |  Next Article »

OSA is a member of CrossRef.

CrossCheck Deposited