Human hearing loss often occurs as a result of damage or malformations to the functional soft tissues within the cochlea, but these changes are not appreciable with current medical imaging modalities. We sought to determine whether optical coherence tomography (OCT) could assess the soft tissue structures relevant to hearing using mouse models. We imaged excised cochleae with an altered tectorial membrane and during normal development. The soft tissue structures and expected anatomical variations were visible using OCT, and quantitative measurements confirmed the ability to detect critical changes relevant to hearing.

© 2011 OSA

1. A. Douraghy and A. F. Chatziioannou, “Preclinical Imaging,” in Basic Sciences of Nuclear Medicine, M. M. Khalil, ed. (Springer-Verlag Heidelberg Dordrecht, London New York, 2011), pp. 379–406.
2. S. G. Nekolla and A. Saraste, “Part III: Concurrent Noninvasive Assessment of Coronary Anatomy, Physiology, and Myocellular Integrity,” in Cardiac CT, PET, and MR, 2nd edition, V. Dilsizian and G. M. Pohost, eds. (Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, 2010), pp. 301–333.
3. H. F. Schuknecht, Pathology of the Ear, 2nd edition (Lea & Febiger, Malvern, 1993).
4. J. W. Lin, N. Chowdhury, A. Mody, R. Tonini, C. Emery, J. Haymond, and J. S. Oghalai, “Comprehensive diagnostic battery for evaluating sensorineural hearing loss in children,” Otol. Neurotol. 32(2), 259–264 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science 254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. R. Leitgeb, C. Hitzenberger, and A. Fercher, “Performance of fourier domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 11(8), 889–894 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. E. A. Swanson, J. A. Izatt, M. R. Hee, D. Huang, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “In vivo retinal imaging by optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 18(21), 1864–1866 (1993). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. M. R. Hee, J. A. Izatt, E. A. Swanson, D. Huang, J. S. Schuman, C. P. Lin, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography of the human retina,” Arch. Ophthalmol. 113(3), 325–332 (1995). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. C. A. Puliafito, M. R. Hee, C. P. Lin, E. Reichel, J. S. Schuman, J. S. Duker, J. A. Izatt, E. A. Swanson, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Imaging of macular diseases with optical coherence tomography,” Ophthalmology 102(2), 217–229 (1995). [PubMed]
10. I. K. Jang, G. Tearney, and B. Bouma, “Visualization of tissue prolapse between coronary stent struts by optical coherence tomography: comparison with intravascular ultrasound,” Circulation 104(22), 2754 (2001). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. E. Grube, U. Gerckens, L. Buellesfeld, and P. J. Fitzgerald, “Images in cardiovascular medicine. Intracoronary imaging with optical coherence tomography: a new high-resolution technology providing striking visualization in the coronary artery,” Circulation 106(18), 2409–2410 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. D. K. Meyerholz, D. A. Stoltz, E. Namati, S. Ramachandran, A. A. Pezzulo, A. R. Smith, M. V. Rector, M. J. Suter, S. Kao, G. McLennan, G. J. Tearney, J. Zabner, P. B. McCray, and M. J. Welsh, “Loss of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator function produces abnormalities in tracheal development in neonatal pigs and young children,” Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 182(10), 1251–1261 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. C. Zhou, D. W. Cohen, Y. Wang, H. C. Lee, A. E. Mondelblatt, T. H. Tsai, A. D. Aguirre, J. G. Fujimoto, and J. L. Connolly, “Integrated optical coherence tomography and microscopy for ex vivo multiscale evaluation of human breast tissues,” Cancer Res. 70(24), 10071–10079 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. F. T. Nguyen, A. M. Zysk, E. J. Chaney, J. G. Kotynek, U. J. Oliphant, F. J. Bellafiore, K. M. Rowland, P. A. Johnson, and S. A. Boppart, “Intraoperative evaluation of breast tumor margins with optical coherence tomography,” Cancer Res. 69(22), 8790–8796 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. J. Park, J. A. Jo, S. Shrestha, P. Pande, Q. Wan, and B. E. Applegate, “A dual-modality optical coherence tomography and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy system for simultaneous morphological and biochemical tissue characterization,” Biomed. Opt. Express 1(1), 186–200 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. D. C. Adler, C. Zhou, T. H. Tsai, J. Schmitt, Q. Huang, H. Mashimo, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Three-dimensional endomicroscopy of the human colon using optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(2), 784–796 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. A. D. Aguirre, Y. Chen, B. Bryan, H. Mashimo, Q. Huang, J. L. Connolly, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Cellular resolution ex vivo imaging of gastrointestinal tissues with optical coherence microscopy,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(1), 016025 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. J. S. Oghalai, J. R. Holt, T. Nakagawa, T. M. Jung, N. J. Coker, H. A. Jenkins, R. A. Eatock, and W. E. Brownell, “Ionic currents and electromotility in inner ear hair cells from humans,” J. Neurophysiol. 79(4), 2235–2239 (1998). [PubMed]
19. A. Xia, S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, A. Osborn, A. Bress, M. Pfister, S. M. Maricich, F. A. Pereira, and J. S. Oghalai, “Deficient forward transduction and enhanced reverse transduction in the alpha tectorin C1509G human hearing loss mutation,” Dis Model Mech 3(3-4), 209–223 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. M. Pfister, H. Thiele, G. Van Camp, E. Fransen, F. Apaydin, O. Aydin, P. Leistenschneider, M. Devoto, H. P. Zenner, N. Blin, P. Nürnberg, H. Ozkarakas, and S. Kupka, “A genotype-phenotype correlation with gender-effect for hearing impairment caused by TECTA mutations,” Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 14(4-6), 369–376 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. R. Gueta, J. Levitt, A. Xia, O. Katz, J. S. Oghalai, and I. Rousso, “Structural and mechanical analysis of tectorial membrane Tecta mutants,” Biophys. J. 100(10), 2530–2538 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. C. C. Liu, S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, C. Steele, S. Puria, and J. S. Oghalai, “Biophysical Mechanisms Underlying Outer Hair Cell Loss Associated with a Shortened Tectorial Membrane,” J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol. (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, A. Xia, P. Raphael, R. L. Shelton, B. Applegate, and J. S. Oghalai, “Imaging of the intact mouse cochlea by spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Proc. SPIE 7889 (2011).
24. D. L. Marks, A. L. Oldenburg, J. J. Reynolds, and S. A. Boppart, “Study of an ultrahigh-numerical-aperture fiber continuum generation source for optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 27(22), 2010–2012 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. H. Tu, D. L. Marks, Y. L. Koh, and S. A. Boppart, “Stabilization of continuum generation from normally dispersive nonlinear optical fibers for a tunable broad bandwidth source for optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 32(14), 2037–2039 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography - principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003). [CrossRef]
27. I. Thalmann, G. Thallinger, E. C. Crouch, T. H. Comegys, N. Barrett, and R. Thalmann, “Composition and supramolecular organization of the tectorial membrane,” Laryngoscope 97(3 Pt 1), 357–367 (1987). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. R. M. Edge, B. N. Evans, M. Pearce, C. P. Richter, X. Hu, and P. Dallos, “Morphology of the unfixed cochlea,” Hear. Res. 124(1-2), 1–16 (1998). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. D. M. Freeman, D. A. Cotanche, F. Ehsani, and T. F. Weiss, “The osmotic response of the isolated tectorial membrane of the chick to isosmotic solutions: effect of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentration,” Hear. Res. 79(1-2), 197–215 (1994). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. J. S. Oghalai, “The cochlear amplifier: augmentation of the traveling wave within the inner ear,” Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 12(5), 431–438 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. B. J. Wong, Y. Zhao, M. Yamaguchi, N. Nassif, Z. Chen, and J. F. De Boer, “Imaging the internal structure of the rat cochlea using optical coherence tomography at 0.827 μm and 1.3 μm,” Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 130(3), 334–338 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. N. Choudhury, G. Song, F. Chen, S. Matthews, T. Tschinkel, J. Zheng, S. L. Jacques, and A. L. Nuttall, “Low coherence interferometry of the cochlear partition,” Hear. Res. 220(1-2), 1–9 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. S. S. Hong and D. M. Freeman, “Doppler optical coherence microscopy for studies of cochlear mechanics,” J. Biomed. Opt. 11(5), 054014 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. F. Chen, N. Choudhury, J. Zheng, S. Matthews, A. L. Nutall, and S. L. Jacques, “In vivo imaging and low-coherence interferometry of organ of Corti vibration,” J. Biomed. Opt. 12(2), 021006 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. A. Sepehr, H. R. Djalilian, J. E. Chang, Z. Chen, and B. J. Wong, “Optical coherence tomography of the cochlea in the porcine model,” Laryngoscope 118(8), 1449–1451 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. H. M. Subhash, V. Davila, H. Sun, A. T. Nguyen-Huynh, A. L. Nuttall, and R. K. Wang, “Volumetric in vivo imaging of intracochlear microstructures in mice by high-speed spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(3), 036024 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. R. K. Wang and A. L. Nuttall, “Phase-sensitive optical coherence tomography imaging of the tissue motion within the organ of Corti at a subnanometer scale: a preliminary study,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(5), 056005 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. J. Lin, H. Staecker, and M. S. Jafri, “Optical coherence tomography imaging of the inner ear: a feasibility study with implications for cochlear implantation,” Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 117(5), 341–346 (2008). [PubMed]

,” J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol.

• C. C. Liu, S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, C. Steele, S. Puria, and J. S. Oghalai, “Biophysical Mechanisms Underlying Outer Hair Cell Loss Associated with a Shortened Tectorial Membrane,” J. Assoc. Res. Otolaryngol. (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.

• D. K. Meyerholz, D. A. Stoltz, E. Namati, S. Ramachandran, A. A. Pezzulo, A. R. Smith, M. V. Rector, M. J. Suter, S. Kao, G. McLennan, G. J. Tearney, J. Zabner, P. B. McCray, and M. J. Welsh, “Loss of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator function produces abnormalities in tracheal development in neonatal pigs and young children,” Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 182(10), 1251–1261 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol.

• J. Lin, H. Staecker, and M. S. Jafri, “Optical coherence tomography imaging of the inner ear: a feasibility study with implications for cochlear implantation,” Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 117(5), 341–346 (2008). [PubMed]

Arch. Ophthalmol.

• M. R. Hee, J. A. Izatt, E. A. Swanson, D. Huang, J. S. Schuman, C. P. Lin, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography of the human retina,” Arch. Ophthalmol. 113(3), 325–332 (1995). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Biomed. Opt. Express

• J. Park, J. A. Jo, S. Shrestha, P. Pande, Q. Wan, and B. E. Applegate, “A dual-modality optical coherence tomography and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy system for simultaneous morphological and biochemical tissue characterization,” Biomed. Opt. Express 1(1), 186–200 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Biophys. J.

• R. Gueta, J. Levitt, A. Xia, O. Katz, J. S. Oghalai, and I. Rousso, “Structural and mechanical analysis of tectorial membrane Tecta mutants,” Biophys. J. 100(10), 2530–2538 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Cancer Res.

• C. Zhou, D. W. Cohen, Y. Wang, H. C. Lee, A. E. Mondelblatt, T. H. Tsai, A. D. Aguirre, J. G. Fujimoto, and J. L. Connolly, “Integrated optical coherence tomography and microscopy for ex vivo multiscale evaluation of human breast tissues,” Cancer Res. 70(24), 10071–10079 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• F. T. Nguyen, A. M. Zysk, E. J. Chaney, J. G. Kotynek, U. J. Oliphant, F. J. Bellafiore, K. M. Rowland, P. A. Johnson, and S. A. Boppart, “Intraoperative evaluation of breast tumor margins with optical coherence tomography,” Cancer Res. 69(22), 8790–8796 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Cell. Physiol. Biochem.

• M. Pfister, H. Thiele, G. Van Camp, E. Fransen, F. Apaydin, O. Aydin, P. Leistenschneider, M. Devoto, H. P. Zenner, N. Blin, P. Nürnberg, H. Ozkarakas, and S. Kupka, “A genotype-phenotype correlation with gender-effect for hearing impairment caused by TECTA mutations,” Cell. Physiol. Biochem. 14(4-6), 369–376 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Circulation

• I. K. Jang, G. Tearney, and B. Bouma, “Visualization of tissue prolapse between coronary stent struts by optical coherence tomography: comparison with intravascular ultrasound,” Circulation 104(22), 2754 (2001). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• E. Grube, U. Gerckens, L. Buellesfeld, and P. J. Fitzgerald, “Images in cardiovascular medicine. Intracoronary imaging with optical coherence tomography: a new high-resolution technology providing striking visualization in the coronary artery,” Circulation 106(18), 2409–2410 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg.

• J. S. Oghalai, “The cochlear amplifier: augmentation of the traveling wave within the inner ear,” Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 12(5), 431–438 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Dis Model Mech

• A. Xia, S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, A. Osborn, A. Bress, M. Pfister, S. M. Maricich, F. A. Pereira, and J. S. Oghalai, “Deficient forward transduction and enhanced reverse transduction in the alpha tectorin C1509G human hearing loss mutation,” Dis Model Mech 3(3-4), 209–223 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Hear. Res.

• R. M. Edge, B. N. Evans, M. Pearce, C. P. Richter, X. Hu, and P. Dallos, “Morphology of the unfixed cochlea,” Hear. Res. 124(1-2), 1–16 (1998). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• D. M. Freeman, D. A. Cotanche, F. Ehsani, and T. F. Weiss, “The osmotic response of the isolated tectorial membrane of the chick to isosmotic solutions: effect of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentration,” Hear. Res. 79(1-2), 197–215 (1994). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• N. Choudhury, G. Song, F. Chen, S. Matthews, T. Tschinkel, J. Zheng, S. L. Jacques, and A. L. Nuttall, “Low coherence interferometry of the cochlear partition,” Hear. Res. 220(1-2), 1–9 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Biomed. Opt.

• S. S. Hong and D. M. Freeman, “Doppler optical coherence microscopy for studies of cochlear mechanics,” J. Biomed. Opt. 11(5), 054014 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• F. Chen, N. Choudhury, J. Zheng, S. Matthews, A. L. Nutall, and S. L. Jacques, “In vivo imaging and low-coherence interferometry of organ of Corti vibration,” J. Biomed. Opt. 12(2), 021006 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• A. D. Aguirre, Y. Chen, B. Bryan, H. Mashimo, Q. Huang, J. L. Connolly, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Cellular resolution ex vivo imaging of gastrointestinal tissues with optical coherence microscopy,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(1), 016025 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• H. M. Subhash, V. Davila, H. Sun, A. T. Nguyen-Huynh, A. L. Nuttall, and R. K. Wang, “Volumetric in vivo imaging of intracochlear microstructures in mice by high-speed spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(3), 036024 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• R. K. Wang and A. L. Nuttall, “Phase-sensitive optical coherence tomography imaging of the tissue motion within the organ of Corti at a subnanometer scale: a preliminary study,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(5), 056005 (2010). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

J. Neurophysiol.

• J. S. Oghalai, J. R. Holt, T. Nakagawa, T. M. Jung, N. J. Coker, H. A. Jenkins, R. A. Eatock, and W. E. Brownell, “Ionic currents and electromotility in inner ear hair cells from humans,” J. Neurophysiol. 79(4), 2235–2239 (1998). [PubMed]

Laryngoscope

• A. Sepehr, H. R. Djalilian, J. E. Chang, Z. Chen, and B. J. Wong, “Optical coherence tomography of the cochlea in the porcine model,” Laryngoscope 118(8), 1449–1451 (2008). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• I. Thalmann, G. Thallinger, E. C. Crouch, T. H. Comegys, N. Barrett, and R. Thalmann, “Composition and supramolecular organization of the tectorial membrane,” Laryngoscope 97(3 Pt 1), 357–367 (1987). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Ophthalmology

• C. A. Puliafito, M. R. Hee, C. P. Lin, E. Reichel, J. S. Schuman, J. S. Duker, J. A. Izatt, E. A. Swanson, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Imaging of macular diseases with optical coherence tomography,” Ophthalmology 102(2), 217–229 (1995). [PubMed]

Opt. Express

• R. Leitgeb, C. Hitzenberger, and A. Fercher, “Performance of fourier domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 11(8), 889–894 (2003). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• D. C. Adler, C. Zhou, T. H. Tsai, J. Schmitt, Q. Huang, H. Mashimo, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Three-dimensional endomicroscopy of the human colon using optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(2), 784–796 (2009). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Opt. Lett.

• E. A. Swanson, J. A. Izatt, M. R. Hee, D. Huang, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “In vivo retinal imaging by optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 18(21), 1864–1866 (1993). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• D. L. Marks, A. L. Oldenburg, J. J. Reynolds, and S. A. Boppart, “Study of an ultrahigh-numerical-aperture fiber continuum generation source for optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 27(22), 2010–2012 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
• H. Tu, D. L. Marks, Y. L. Koh, and S. A. Boppart, “Stabilization of continuum generation from normally dispersive nonlinear optical fibers for a tunable broad bandwidth source for optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 32(14), 2037–2039 (2007). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Otol. Neurotol.

• J. W. Lin, N. Chowdhury, A. Mody, R. Tonini, C. Emery, J. Haymond, and J. S. Oghalai, “Comprehensive diagnostic battery for evaluating sensorineural hearing loss in children,” Otol. Neurotol. 32(2), 259–264 (2011). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg.

• B. J. Wong, Y. Zhao, M. Yamaguchi, N. Nassif, Z. Chen, and J. F. De Boer, “Imaging the internal structure of the rat cochlea using optical coherence tomography at 0.827 μm and 1.3 μm,” Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 130(3), 334–338 (2004). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Proc. SPIE

• S. S. Gao, T. Yuan, A. Xia, P. Raphael, R. L. Shelton, B. Applegate, and J. S. Oghalai, “Imaging of the intact mouse cochlea by spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Proc. SPIE 7889 (2011).

Rep. Prog. Phys.

• A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography - principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003). [CrossRef]

Science

• D. Huang, E. A. Swanson, C. P. Lin, J. S. Schuman, W. G. Stinson, W. Chang, M. R. Hee, T. Flotte, K. Gregory, C. A. Puliafito, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Optical coherence tomography,” Science 254(5035), 1178–1181 (1991). [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Other

• A. Douraghy and A. F. Chatziioannou, “Preclinical Imaging,” in Basic Sciences of Nuclear Medicine, M. M. Khalil, ed. (Springer-Verlag Heidelberg Dordrecht, London New York, 2011), pp. 379–406.
• S. G. Nekolla and A. Saraste, “Part III: Concurrent Noninvasive Assessment of Coronary Anatomy, Physiology, and Myocellular Integrity,” in Cardiac CT, PET, and MR, 2nd edition, V. Dilsizian and G. M. Pohost, eds. (Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, 2010), pp. 301–333.
• H. F. Schuknecht, Pathology of the Ear, 2nd edition (Lea & Febiger, Malvern, 1993).

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